NCE: Theories of Counseling and the Helping Relationship

Psychoanalysis

the oldest major form of therapy; it is both a form of therapy and a theory of personality; a major criticism is that it cannot be tested. The basic premise of psychoanalysis is that techniques which could produce cathartic material were highly therapeuti

Joseph Breuer

a Viennese neurologist who taught Freud the value of the talking care (catharsis); Anna O. was his patient

structural theory of psychoanalysis

id, ego & superego are hypothetical constructs used to explain the function of personality

topographic hypothesis

unconscious, preconscious & conscious - the mind has depth like an iceberg

Freud's 5 psychosexual stages

oral (birth-1), anal (1-3), phallic (3-6) - Oedipus conflict, latency (6-puberty) - sexual drive seems hidden, sexual interests replaced by social interests such as sports, learning & hobbies, only stage not primarily psychosexual in nature; and genital (

Oedipus/Electra complex

a child's libido is directed toward the parent of the opposite sex, but is aware that retaliation would result is s/he acted on these impulses. A child strives for identification with the parents of the same sex to achieve vicarious sexual satisfaction.

transference

the client displaces emotion felt toward a parent onto the analyst; a form of projection, displacement & repitition

ego

the "reality principle"; the executive administrator/mediator of the personality; controls the impulses from the id (instincts) and the superego (the conscience); houses the individual's identity. The ego uses ego defense mechanisms to control personality

id

the "pleasure principle"; the seat of the libido; instincts

superego

the "ego ideal"; composed of values, moral & ideals of parents, caretakers & society. The superego punishes the ego via guilt if the id is able to act on impulses.

Eros

in psychoanalysis: Greek God of the love of life; self-preservation

Thanatos

the Greek work for death; death wish/death instinct

free association

psychoanalytic technique, completely indirective; the client is instructed to say whatever comes to mind

dream work

dream work consists of deciphering the hidden meaning of the dream (symbolism) so the individual can be aware of unconscious motives, impulses, desires & conflicts

2 contents of dreams

1) manifest content - surface meaning of dreams; 2) latent content - hidden meaning of dreams

Anna O.

Joseph Brueur treated in the 1880s, first psychoanalytic patient; she suffered from hysteria; in hypnosis she would remember painful events; talking brought about catharsis

hysteria

symptoms without an organic basis

Little Hans

child feared going into streets & being bitten by horses; Freud explained by Oedipus complex & castration anxiety; antithesis to Little Albert

Daniel Paul Scohreber

a famous psychoanalytic case; he spent 9 years in a mental hospital & wrote "Memoirs of a Mental Patient"; he had the delusion that he would be transformed into a woman, become God's mate & produce a healthier race. Freud thought he might be struggling wi

psychodynamic therapy

makes use of analytic principles, but utilizes fewer session per week, does not utilize the couch & is performed face-to-face

catharsis/abreaction

Freud & Breuer - highly charged repressed emotions which were released during the hypnotic process; catharsis used to connote mild purging of emotion; abreaction is when a repressed emotional outburst is very powerful and violent.

parapraxis

slips of the tongue; Freud called "the psychopathology of everyday life

conscious mind

aware of the immediate environment

preconscious mind

capable of bringing ideas, thoughts, and images into awareness with minimal difficulty; can assess information from the conscious and unconscious mind

unconscious mind

composed of material which is normally unknown or hidden from the client; fears are the result of an unconscious process

ego defense mechanisms

unconscious processes which serve to minimize anxiety and protect the self from severe id or superego demands; unconscious strategies which distort reality and are based on self-deception to protect self-image

repression

the most important defense mechanism; serves to protect the person and "help him/her through the distasteful incident at the time", can cause emotional problems later in life; a client needs to recall the repressed memory & make it conscious so it can be

reaction formation

when a person can't accept a given impulse and thus behave in the opposite manner (a person subconsciously wants an elderly person to die, so tends to their every need)

denial

aka "suppression", failing to face reality. It is similar to repression, but unlike repression, is a conscious act.

sublimation

when a person acts on an unconscious impulse in a socially acceptable way (a man who unconsciously wants to hurt people becomes a football player)

rationalization

an intellectual excuse to minimize hurt feelings; a client will tend to interpret his thoughts & feelings in a positive or favorable manner

sweet lemons rationalization

overrates a reward; evident when someone tells you how wonderful a distasteful set of circumstances really is.

sour grapes rationalization

underrates a reward to protect self from a bruised ego (e.g., "I didn't really want it anyway")

displacement

occurs when an impulse is unleashed at a safe target (e.g. a man who is angry at his boss comes home and kicks the family dog)

introjection

when a child takes a parent's or significant other's values as his/her own (e.g. a sexually abused child attempts to sexually abuse other children)

identification

person identifies with a cause or a successful person with the unconscious hope that s/he will be perceived as worthwhile or successful; or identification with another person serves to lower the fear or anxiety toward that person

projection

a person attributes unacceptable qualities or his/her own to others

compensation

individual attempts to develop or overdevelop a positive trait to make up for a limitation (i.e., a perceived inferiority). The person secretly hopes that others will focus on the positives than the negative factors.

wish fulfillments

Freud - dreams & slips of the tongue are actually wish fulfillments

totem

an object that represents a family or group

the primal scene

psychoanalytic concept; a young child witnesses his parents having sexual intercourse or is seduced by a parent; whether real or imagined, provides impetus for later neurosis

regression

Freud - a client who returns to an earlier stage in development

dread of incest

Freud thought this was not instilled merely via modern social sanctions, because even primitive people feared incest

transference neurosis

the client is attached to the counselor as is s/he is a substitute parent

countertransference

evident when the counselor's strong feelings or attachment ot the client are strong enough to hinder the treatment process

neo-Freudians

stressed the importance of cultural (social) issues and interpersonal (social) relations; neo-Freudians include Adler, Karen Horney, Erik Erikson, Harry Stack Sullivan, and Erich Fromm)

symptoms substitution

if you merely deal with the symptom, another symptom will manifest itself since the real problem is in the unconscious mind

depth psychology

treatment based on Freud's topographic hypothesis (conscious, preconscious, unconscious)

Analytic Psychology

Carl Gustav Jung; a psychodynamic approach

logos

logic; men operate on the logic/logos principle

eros

in analytic psychology: intuition; women operate from the eros principle

mandalas

the self is symbolized via the mandala; Jung used drawings balanced around a center point to analyze himself, his clients & dreams; in Hindu writings, a mandala is a symbol of meditations; Jung - mandalas can also stand for a magic protective circle that

introversion

a turning in of the libido; an introverted individual is his/her own primary source of pleasure; inward directedness

extroversion

tendency to find satisfaction & please in other people; extroverts seek external rewards; outward directedness

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

Jungian, most widely used measure of personality preferences & dispositions; 1) Extroverted/Introverted; 2) Sensing (currently perceptions)/Intuition (future abstractions & possibilities); 3) Thinking/Feelings; 4) Judging (organizing & controlling the out

collective unconscious

Jungian concept; all humans have "collected" universally inherited, unconscious neural patterns

anima

feminine side; society caused men to deny this; individuals are androgynous

animus

masculine side; society caused women to deny this; individuals are androgynous

archetype

the collective unconscious which is passed from generation to generation; a primal universal symbol, which means the same thing to all men & women (e.g., the cross); certain archetypes have appeared in fables, myths, dreams & religious writings since the

shadow

behind the mask/persona, which contains id-like material; the dark side of the personality; encompasses everything an individual refuses to acknowledge; nature of the shadow evident in dreams & projection; therapy renders shadow behaviors conscious

the persona

Jung - the mask or role we present to others to hide our true self

Konrad Lorenz

instinct theoriest; aggressiveness is part of our evolution and necessary for our survival; individuals need to utilize catharsis to get our anger out, using methods such as competitive sports

Behaviorism

the environment controls behavior; stresses contracting and de-emphasizes transference

empiricism

John Locke - a forerunner to behaviorism; experience is the source for acquiring knowledge

reinforcement theory

Skinner - elaborated on Edward Thorndike's law of effect; responses accompanied by satisfaction will be repeated, while those which produce unpleasantness or discomfort will be stamped out.

associationism

philosophy that ideas are held together by association; pioneers included John Locke, David Hume, James Mill, David Hartly; behaviorism grew out of associationism

Andrew Salter

Father of behavioral therapy, created assertiveness training and a paradigm dubbed conditioned reflex therapy; behavioristic theory of hypnosis & autohypnosis

John Watson

pioneered American behaviorism; he and Rosalie Rayner conditional Little Albert to be afraid of fury objects; notion that fear is learned

baseline

indicates the frequency of the behavior prior to or in the absence of treatment

classical conditioning

Ivan Pavlov - deals with reflexes and respondent behaviors

unlearned association

an association that naturally exists

acquisition period

the time it takes to learn or acquire a new behavior

reinforcers

tend to increase the proabability that a behavior will occur

positive reinforcement

something is added following an operant

negative reinforcement

something is taken away after a behavior occurs

secondary reinforcer

a neutral stimulus, such as a plastic token, which becomes reinforcing by association; can be exchanged for primary (actual) reinforcers

punishment

lowers the probability that a behavior will occur, temporarily suppresses it

positive punishment

something is added after a behavior and the behavior decreases

negative punishment

stimulus is removed following a behavior and the response decreases

unconditioned stimulus

Pavlov - the meat in the dog experiment

conditioned stimulus

Pavlov - the bell in the dog experiment

time interval for classical conditioning

most effective time interval (temporal relation) between conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus is a half-second

delay conditioning

when the conditioned stimulus is delayed until the unconditioned stimulus occurs

trace conditioning

when the conditioned stimulus terminates before the occurrence of the unconditioned stiumulus

backward conditioning

the unconditioned stimulus is placed before the conditioned stimulus; ineffective technique

stimulus generalization/second-order conditioning

occurs when a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus produces the same reaction; Pavlov termed this irradiation

stimulus discrimination/differentiation

the learning process is fine-tuned to respond to only a specific stimulus

experimental neurosis

when the differentiation process becomes too tough because the stimuli are almost identical, the subject will show signs of emotional disturbance

extinction (Pavlov)

occurs when the conditioned stimulus in not reinforced via the unconditioned stimulus; the conditioned response is inhibited (suppressed, but not eliminated)

spontaneous recovery

if the subject is given a rest, the conditioned response will reappear, though it will be weaker

extinction (Skinner)

connotes that reinforcement is withheld and eventually the behavior will be extinguished (eliminated)

response burst/extinction burst

when using extinction, the behavior will get worse before it gets better; temporary increase in the frequency of the behavior

chaining

a sequence of behaviors in which one response renders a cue that the next response is to occur; simple behaviors are learned and then chained so that a complex behavior can take place; a series of operants joined together by reinforcers

behavior therapy

Pavlovian; classical conditioning

behavioral modification strategies

Skinnerian; operant conditioning

law of effect/trail-and-error learning

Edward Thorndike - satisfying association related to a given behavior will cause it to be "stamped in", while those associated with annoying consequences are "stamped out"; practice must yield a reward for effective learning to take place

Mary Cover Jones

learning could serve as a treatment for a phobic reaction

continuous schedule of reinforcement

a behavior modifier reinforcer every behavior

intermittent schedule of reinforcement

(aka partial reinforcement or thinning); does not enforce every desirable action; target behavior is only reinforced after the behavior manifests itself several time or for a given time interval (interval/ratio)

operant

Skinner - any behavior which is not elicited by an obvious stimulus

respondents

Skinner - the consequence of a known stimulus

learned helplessness

Martin E.P. Seligman - a pattern in which a person is exposed to situations that s/he is powerless to change and then begins to believe s/he has no control over the environment; individual can easily become depressed

fixed-action pattern (FAP)

will result whenever a releaser in the environment is present (e.g., ritualistic behaviors)

higher order conditioning

when a new stimulus is paired with the conditioned stimulus and the new stimulus takes on the power of the conditioned stimulus

biofeedback temperature trainer

extremely precise thermometer; can train a client to raise hand temperature

Neal Miller

His experiment showed that autonomic bodily processes could be controlled; therapists use biofeedback to do this

biofeedback devices

used primarily to teach clients to relax or to control autonomic nervous system functions such as blood pressure, pulse rate, or hand temperature

electromyogram (EMG)

measures muscle tension; a therapist would use this when a client is tensing a given muscle group in biofeedback

electroencephalogram (EEG)

monitors brain waves, especially alpha waves; alpha state is awake, but extremely relaxed

electrocardiogram (EKG)

provides data on the heart

progressive muscle relaxation

Edmund Jacobson developed a relaxation technique in which muscle groups are alternately tensed and relaxed until the whole body is in a state of relaxation

galvanic skin response (GSR)

provides electric skin resistance; biofeedback technique, correlated with emotion.

Premack principle

allowing an individual to engage in certain responses can be used as a reinforcer; of any pair of responses or activities in which an individual engages, the more frequent one will reinforce the less frequent one; a lower-probability behavior (e.g., study

fixed schedule of reinforcement

reinforcement always takes place after a fixed time or number of responses; fixed interval & fixed ratio

variable schedule of reinforcement

an average number of responses or times may be used; variable ratio & variable interval

variable ratio

the most difficult schedule of reinforcement to extinguish (e.g., slot machines)

token economies

agencies that use tokens as a system of behavior modification; a token is a secondary reinforcer

back-up reinforcer

an item or activity which can be purchased using token; often unconditioned (e.g., candy bar)

covert

a behavior that is not observable; covert process in behavior therapy is a client's thought or visualization

overt

an observable behavior; "in vivo" treatment is a direct treatment of observable behavior

aversive conditioning

pair behavior with an aversive stimulus to reduce satisfaction of the behavior

BASIC ID

Arnold Lazarus (strong behavioral slant) - 7 key modalities or areas of the client's funcitoning; B = behavior including acts, habits & reactions; A = affective responses such as emotions, feelings & moods; S = sensations; I = images/the way we perceive o

systematic desensitization

Joseph Wolpe; used when trying to weaken (desensitize) a client's response to anxiety-producing stimuli; technique for curing phobic reactions, anxiety, & avoidance responses to innocuous situations; a form of behavior therapy based on Pavlov's classical

subjective units of distress scale (SUDS)

a concept used in forming a hierarchy to perform systematic desensitization; a client uses introspection to rate the anxiety of imagined situations 1-100

fixed role therapy

George A. Kelly - a client is given a sketch of a person or a fixed role; client reads script 3 times per day and acts, thinks, and verbalizes like the person in the script; "psychology of personal constructs

behavioral rehearsal

a counselor utilizes role-playing combined with a hierarchy of situations; counselor may also switch roles & model behavior

interposition

a perceptual term which implies that one item conceals another (e.g., in desensitization in imagination, the relaxation obscures the anxiety of the imagined scene in the hierarchy)

in vivo

a client will actually expose him/herself to the scary situation in the hierarchy; should not begin in vivo exposure until the client is desensitized to 75% of the hierarchy

sensate focus

Masters and Johnson - behavioral sex therapy; a couple is told to engage in touching and caressing (to lower anxiety levels) on a graduated basis until intercourse is possible (counterconditioning)

orgone box

William Reich - thought that repeated sexual gratification was necessary for the cure of emotional maladies; clients would sit on orgone box to increase orgone life energy

cover sensitization

imagining averse reaction to undesired behavior and pleasant reaction to desired behavior

implosive therapy

T.G. Stampfl - desensitization technique; always conducted using the imagination & sometimes relies on psychoanalytic symbolism; it does not necessarily utilize relaxation or introduce feared stimuli gradually; assumes that avoiding the fear serves to int

flooding

(aka "deliberate exposure with response prevention); when a client is genuinely exposed to the feared stimulus (in vivo) for an extended peroid of time; effective for agoraphobia and OCD. Flooding does not necessarily utilize relaxation; assumes that avoi

radical behaviorism

Skinner - operant or instrumental conditioning; assumes that the environment maintains & supports behavior and that only overt behaviors are the subject of treatment (aka applied behavioral analysis or S-R paradigm)

shaping/successive approximation

operant behavior modification term which suggests that a behavior is gradually accomplished by reinforcing "successive steps" until the target behavior is reached

counterconditioning

behavioristic technique; goal is to weaken or eliminate a learned response by pairing it with a stronger or desirable response

cognitive restructuring (Donald Meichenbaum)

when the client begins thinking in a healthy new way using different internal dialogue; similar to REBT

Individual Psychology

Alfred Adler - psychodynamic; stresses the unique qualities we each possess; thought our lifestyle was a self-fulfilling prophecy based on our psychological feelings about ourselves; stressed the importance of birth order in the family constellation; Adle

will to power/striving for superiority

Adler initially felt that aggressive drives were responsible for most human behaviors; he changed this to "will to power", then concluded it was "striving for superiority" or a thirst for perfection that motivated behavior

sibling interaction

Adler thought it had more impact than parent/child interaction

social connectedness (individual psychology)

we need one another; Adler emphasized that people wished to belong

Rudolph Dreikers

student of Adler; first to discuss the use of group therapy in private practice; used Adlerian principles to treat children in a school setting

inferiority/superiority

Adler thought the major psychological goal was to escape deep-seated feelings of inferiority; he emphasized the drive for superiority in his theory

firstborns

will go to great lengths to please their parents

second child

will often try to compete with a firstborn child and often surpasses the first child's performance

middle child (or children)

will often feel the s/he is being treated unfairly; sometimes seen as being quite manipulative

youngest child

can be pampered or spoiled; often excel by modeling/imitating the older children's behavior

Adlerian question

the counselor asks "What would your life be like if you were functioning in an ideal manner?", then asks the client to act as if s/he didn't have the problem.

Reality Therapy

William Glasser - perception controls our behavior; focuses on the here-and-now and present behavior; assumes individual controls the environment; a plan is created to help the client master his target behaviors; assumes identity is a person's most import

choice/control theory

the only person whose behavior we can control is our own; our behavior is our best attempt to control our world to satisfy our wants & needs; reality therapy has incorporated choice/control theory

failure identity/faulty perception of reality

negative self-concept; a person who is irresponsible and frustrated in an attempt to feel loved and worthwhile; dwelling on past failures can reinforce this identity

success identity

the results of being loved and accepted; the person feels worthy and significant to others; client assumes responsibility for his/her own happiness by learning to fulfill personal needs without depriving others of their need fulfillment

Reality Therapy & diagnosis

Reality Therapy rejects the traditional medical model of disease; it doesn't use formal diagnostic processes; believes diagnostic labels give clients permission to act sick or irresponsible

Schools Without Failure

Glasser's Reality Therapy book that was popularized in education circles; he also wrote "Choice Theory" and "Positive Addiction

8 steps of reality therapy

1) therapist makes friends with the client; 2) focus on present moment behavior; 3) help the client to evaluate his/her current behavior; 4) develop a contract with an action plan; 5) have the client commit to the plan; 6) accept no excuses; 7) the counse

positive addiction

a noncompetitive activity which can be performed alone for about 1 hour each day; the client needs to be able to see that performing the activity will lead to personal improvement; and client needs to be capable of performing the activity without becoming

contracting

the client has input before signing or agreeing with the contract; used in directive approaches

paraphrasing

a counselor restates a client's message in the counselor's own words

accurate empathy

a counselor can truly understand what the client is feeling or experiencing

Truax & Carkhuff

created a program to help counselings learn accurate empathy

Carkhuff scale

Robert Carkhuff - 5 point scale measuring a counselor's empathy, genuineness, concreteness and respect; Level 1) not attending or detracting significantly from the client's verbal & behavioral expressions; Level 2) subtracts noticeable affect from the com

introspection

describes any process in which the client attempts to describe his/her internal thoughts, feelings & ideas

insight

making a client aware of something previous unknown; a novel sudden understanding of a problem; increases self-knowledge

resistance

a client who is fighting the helping process in any manner; (psychoanalysis) a client will be reluctant to bring unconscious ideas into the conscious mind

interpretation

when the counselor uncovers a deeper meaning regarding a client's situation; can help make clients aware of nonverbal behaviors or help clients understand feelings and behaviors related to childhood; (psychoanalytic) the purpose of interpretation is to ma

eidetic imagery

photographic memory"; the ability to remember the most minute details of a scene or picture for an extended period of time; usually gone by the time a child reaches adolescence

paradoxical techniques

often seem to defy logic as the client is instructed to intensify or purposely engage in the maladaptive behavior; became popular with family therapists (Jay Haley & Miton Erikson); used by Adler & Frankl

confrontation

therapists points out discrepancies bewteen the client's verbal and nonverbal behavior; to illuminate discrepancies between the client's and the helper's conceptualization of the situation; emphasized in REBT

empathy

the ability to understand a client's world and to communicate this to the client; a subjective understanding of the here-and-now; most important factor in the counseling relationship

summarization

a counselor brings together the ideas discussed during a period of dialogue; constitutes a synthesis regarding the general tone or feeling of the helping process; the ability to condense the material to capture the essence of the therapeutic exchange

pica

tendency for humans to eat objects that are not food; could be a psychological difficulty or lack of minerals in the diet

nondirective

a counselor who allows the clients to explore thoughts & feelings with a minimum of direction (e.g., Roger's Person-Centered Counseling)

directive

the therapist leads the client to discuss certain topics and provide direct suggestions about how the client act or behave (aka active therapy or active-directive)

counseling paradigm

a treatment model

concreteness

specificity; used to eliminate vague language

a directive

a suggestion

parroting

the counselor restates the client's message back verbatim; a misuse of paraphrasing

sympathy

compassion; also implies pity

Yerkes-Dodson Law

a moderate amount of arousal actually improves performance

constructivist/postmodernist therapy

realities are socially constructed (i.e., a client constructs or invents the way s/he perceives the world); there are no fixed truths in the world, only people's individuals perceptions of what constitues reality or the truth; the client and therapist hav

solution focused brief therapy (SFBT)

Steve DeShazer and Insoo Kim Berg; focuses on solutions and not on an understanding of the problemexamines what worked for the client in the past; it is a constructivist therapy

miracle question

popularized by solution focused brief therapy; brief-therapy technique in which the therapist asks, "suppose one night while you were asleep, there was a miracle and the problem was solved. How would you know? What would be different?"; allows client to l

narrative therapy

Michael White, Cheryl White, and David Epston; individuals construct their lives by stories they tell about themselves and stories other create about them; stories create meaning and this become the client's identity; counselor looks at the stories in the

personology

the study of the personality

Henry Murray

created the TAT; wrote "Explorations in Personality

Eclectic counselor

uses theories and techniques from several models of intervention, rather than simply relying on one; attempts to choose the best theoretical approach based on the client's attributes, resources & situation

Psychotherapy Integration (Thorne)

Frederick Thorne; uses strategies from a number of counseling schools; integrative approach assumes that using or integrating two or more theories will often produce results that are superior to a single school of therapy; true eclecticism needed to be ri

EMDR

Francine Shapiro - eye movement desensitization & reprocessing

attending

counselor is truly engaged in active listening skills; when you give your client your complete attention

verbal tracking

attending behavior that is verbal

task-facilitative behavior (in attending)

when the counselor's thoughts are in relation to the client

abstractive behavior (in attending)

when the counselor is thinking about his/her own concerns (e.g., where to go for lunch, how much money s/he is making that day)

Arthur Janov

primal scream therapy

silence

silence gives the client time to assimilate the counseling process and coaxes the client to direct the session; silence is the most threatening interaction for clients and counselors; some of the most valuable verbalizations occur after a period of silenc

bibliotherapy

the use of books and writings pertaining to self-improvement

homework

whenever a counselor gives the client an assignment which is to be done outside the counseling session

cycle of violence

Leonore Walker; 1) Tension-Building phase where arguments erupt easily, "walking on eggshells"; 2) Battering/Acute Incident phase where there is actual abuse, sexual abuse, or homicide; 3) Honeymoon phase, which is the make-up phase. As time goes by the c

Gazda

global rating scale for rating helper responses; 1.0) response does not attend to client's needs; 2.0) superficial and deal only partially with surface feelings; 3.0) does facilitate growth; limited to surface feelings, and counselor does not distort that

counseling 1950s-1980s

1950s - counseling, not testing, became the key guidance function; developmental psychology was popular; 1960s - field inundated with competing psychotherapies (gestalt, behavioristic, reality therapy, etc.); 1970s - biofeedback, behavior modification, cr

phrenology

early pseudoscientific doctrine which asserts that one's personality could be determined by the shape and configuration of the skull

action phase

the process after the counseling relationship is built; some degree of directiveness is needed

consultation

can target organizational concerns or service delivery; in consultation, genuineness and respect are more important than empathy

Caplan's Psychodynamic Mental Health Consultation Model

Gerald Caplan - father of mental health consultation; consultant does not see client directly but advises the consultee (the individual in the organization who is receiving the consultant's services); controversially, consultant is ethically responsible f

Behavioral Consultation/Social Learning Model

consultant designs behavioral change for the consultee to implement

consultation models (Edgar Schein)

1) process consultation model - the consultant helps the consultee with the process; focus on the organization, not the individual client; the focus is not on the content of the problem, but on the process used to solve the problem; 2) doctor-patient mode

Triadic Consultation Model

the consultant works with a mediator to provide services to a client

social power/social influence

3 factors perceived by client determine this in a counselor: expertise, attractiveness & trustworthiness

attractiveness

positive feelings and thoughts regarding the counselor are helpful; if the client and counselor have similar experiences, counselor is seen as attractive (basis of chemical dependency model)

counselor's self-image

competence, power, and intimacy cause problems with a counselor's self-image

competence

a counselor's self-perception regarding his/her adequacy; a counselor who feels incompetent could directly or indirectly communicate this to a client

power

positive trait used to enhance the client's growth; counselor struggling with own feelings in regard to power become rigid, coercive, or even beligerant toward the client; others become overly non-directive

intimacy

counselor with personal issues around intimacy could also become extremely non-directive or afraid to confront the client due to fear of rejection

accomplishment-competence

Gerard Egan - an accomplishment (e.g., helping abate a client's depression) can impact upon a counselor's feelings of competence, or the client's perception of the helper's expertise

3 types of empathy

Allen E. Ivey - basic, substractive, and additive

basic empathy

the counselor's response is on the same level as the client's

subtractive empathy

counselor's behavior does not completely convey an understanding of what has been communicated

additive empathy

adds to the client's understanding and awareness

Transactional Analysis (TA)

Eric Berne; here-and-now approach and cognitive approach; these counselors frequently use gestalt therapy in the counseling process; uses contracting

structural theory (TA)

(hypothetical construct used to explain the function of personality) 3 ego states: the Child, the Adult, and the Parent; analogous to Freud's id, ego & superego

nurturing parent

if a child has nurturing caretakers, s/he will develop "nurturing parent" qualities, such as being nonjudgmental, caring, protective and sympathetic to others

prejudicial parent

opinionated with biases not based on fact (e.g., women should always wear dresses to work)

critical parent

master of shoulds, oughts, and musts; parent ego state is filled with prejudicial and critical messages; individuals will be intimidating, bossy, or know-it-alls

incomplete parent

caretaker left or died when the child was at an early age; could expect others to parent him/her throughout life, or might use the lack of parenting as an excuse for poor behavior (the game of Wooden Leg)

The Parent

exteropsyche"; the synthesis of messages received from parental figures and significant others incorporated into the personality

structural analysis

when the counselor analyses out of which ego state a client is primarily operating (P-A-C)

second-order structural analysis

when a counselor analyses an ego state within an ego state (e.g. Critical Parent, Nurturing Parent)

The Adult

neopsyche"; processes facts and does not focus on feelings; rational, logical

The Child

archaeopsyche

Natural Child

child ego state (TA); what the person would be naturally: spontaneous, impulsive, untrained

The Little Professor

child ego state (TA); creative and intuitive; acts on hunches, often without the necessary information

The Adapted Child

child ego state (TA); learns to comply to avoid a parental slap on the hand

injunctions

messages we receive from parents to form the ego states

complementary transaction

(TA) vectors of communication run parallel; a healthy communication transaction (e.g. I send a message form my adult to your child and get a response from you child to my adult)

crossed transaction

occur when vectors from a message sent and a message received do not run parallel (e.g. I send a message from my adult to your adult and you respond from your adult to my child)

game (TA)

a transaction with a concealed motive; prevents honest intimate discussion and one player is always left with negative feelings; games are played to avoid intimacy

ulterior transaction

when a disguised message is sent; 2 or more ego states are operating at the same time

game analysis

the act of looking at the consequences of games

life script (Claude Steiner)

in Gestalt, person develops a life plan called a life script; it is a person's ongoing drama which dictates how a person will live his/her life. 1) never scripts - a person who never feels s/he will succeed; 2) always scripts - individuals who will always

4 Basic Life Positions (Harris)

Tom Harris; Transactional Analysis uses these life positions; 1) I'm OK - You're OK - healthy life position; these people are successful winners; 2) I'm OK - You're not OK - position taken by adolescent delinquents and adult criminals; person feels victim

Karpman's triangle/drama triange

used in Transactional Analysis; 3 roles are necessary for manipulative drama: persecutor, rescuer, and victim

empty chair technique

a person imagines that another individual is in a chain in front of him/her, then the client talks to that person; popular in TA and gestalt; in gestalt, used for top dog/underdog split in personality and other opposing tendencies, such as feminine and ma

degrees of games

first degree game - harm is minimal; second degree game - the hurt is more serious; third degree game - the hurt can be permanent

rackets

unpleasant feelings after a person creates a game; a set of behaviors originating from a childhood script that are employed in a way to manipulate the environment to match the script rather than to actually solve the problem

collecting trading stamps

the experience of trying to secure these feelings (rackets)

script analysis

the process of ferreting out a client's script

Rational-Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT)

Albert Ellis - active directive and cognitive behavioral form of therapy; assumes a client's emotional disturbance is the result of irrational thoughts & ideas; the client creates his/her own present emotional & behavioral difficulties; humans have an inn

Epictetus

quoted by REBT "men are disturbed not by things, but of the view which they take of them

Alfred Korzybski

founder of general semantics; Ellis based some REBT thought on him

Karen Horney

the tyrrany of the shoulds"; Ellis based some REBT thought on her

ABC theory of personality

A=activating event; B=belief system; C=emotional consequence; intervention: D=disputing the irrational behavior at B; E=a new emotional consequence/an effective new philosophy on life

musturbation

when a client uses too many shoulds, oughts, and musts in his/her thinking; "absolutist thinking

awfulizing/catasphrophizing

the act of telling yourself how terrible a given situation is; occurs at point B - the belief system

cognitive restructuring (REBT)

refuting irrational ideas & replacing them with rational ones; the process of changing your thoughts ergo your feelings via self-talk/internal verbalization (thought)

cognitive disputation

the act of changing the client's mode of thinking

imaginal disputation

imagery to help the process of cognitive disputation

behavioral disputation

REBT; the client tries to behave in a way that is markedly different than his/her normal, though undesirable pattern

declaration

internal sentences that can cause or ward off emotional discord

rational emotive imagery

the client imagines s/he is in a situation which has traditionally caused emotional disturbance; then imagines changing the feelings via rational, logic, scientific thought

Rational Behavior Therapy (RBT)

Maxie C. Maultsby, Jr. - rational self-counseling, client uses rational emotive imagery; similar to REBT, but the client performs a written self-analysis; good for substance abuse, multicultural counseling & group therapy; counselor is didactic & directiv

cognitive therapy

Aaron T. Beck - ; clients have automatic thoughts which are distortion of relatiy; depression is the result of a cognitive triad of negative beliefs regarding oneself, one's future & one's experience; similar to REBT, but dysfunctional ideas are too absol

metacognitions

an individual's tendency to be aware of his/her own cognitions or cognitive abilities

Self-Instructional Therapy

Donald Meichenbaum - a cognitive therapy; stress-innocuation technique: 1) client taught to monitor the impact of inner dialogue on behavior; 2) rehearsal phase - clients are taught to rehearse new self-talk; 3) application phase - new inner dialogues att

Existentialism

rejects traditional diagnosis & assessment procedures; stresses growth and self-actualization; individuals have choices in their lives and cannot blame others or childhood circumstances for a lack of fulfillment; you can't control the environment, but you

Logotherapy

Viktor Frankl - an existential form of treatment which stresses "healing through meaning"; humanistic form of helping in which the counselor helps the client discover meaning in his/her life by doing a dead (i.e., accomplishment), experiencing a value (e.

I-Thou Relationship

Martin Buber - a horizontal relationship, assumes equality between persons; used by existentialists & Rogerians

vertical relationship

counselor viewed as the expert

Rollo May

introduced existentialism in the United States

Irvin Yalom

an existentialist, well-known for his group work

Karl Jaspers

an existentialist - German psychiatrist and philosopher

umwelt

existentialism, physical world (and biological system)

mitwelt

existentialism, relationship world

eigenwelt

existentialism, identity world

noogenic neurosis

existentialism, the frustration of the will-to-meaning

process of existentialism

Counselor assists the client in finding meaning in life so client can write his/her own life story by making meaningful choices. When exploring the meaning of life, some anxiety is normal. Death is not an evil concept; death is an entity which gives meani

phenomenology

existentialism, the client's internal personal experience of events

ontology

existentialism, the metaphysical study of life; the philosophy of being & existing

Person-Centered Therapy

Carl Rogers - optimistic form of therapy; considered existential or humanistic; basic notion is that human beings can self-actualize and reach their full potential in a therapeutic setting that foster growth; accurate empathy & refection of emotional cont

humanistic psychology

the third force in counseling; reaction to behaviorism and psychoanalysis

climate for growth

therapist helps provide a appropriate climate through the human relations core elements

human relations core

aka 3 conditions for effective helping: genuineness/congruence; unconditional positive regard, and empathic understanding

genuineness/congruence

external behavior matches an internal response or state; counselor is aware of his/her own feelings & accurately expresses this to the client; the counselor's ability to be him/herself; a congruent counselor is real & authentic

unconditional positive regard

nonjudgmental acceptance or non-possessive warmth; counselor must care for the client even when the counselor is uncomfortable or disagrees with the client's position; the counselor accepts the client just the way s/he is without any stipulations

Gestalt Therapy

Fritz Perls - experiential/existential approach that focuses on the here-and-now in an attempt to help the client become whole again; Gestalt Therapy attempts to ameliorate mind/body split supposedly responsible for emotional distress; emphasis on increas

neurolinguistic programming (NLP)

Bandler & Grinder - watched Milton Erikson, Fritz Perls & Virigina Satir to discover what these therapists really did; uses reframing and anchoring

reframing

the counselor helps the client to perceive a given situation in a new light so as to produce a new emotional reaction to it

anchoring

a desirable emotional state is evoked via an outside stimulus (touch, sound, specific body motion); similar to classical conditioning or posthypnotic suggestion

posthypnotic suggestion

a suggestion which works after you leave the hypnotist's office

playing the projection

gestalt therapy technique, the counselor asks you to act like this person you dislike

converting questions to statements

gestalt therapy, taking responsibility for a feeling or situation through "I" statements

dream work (gestalt)

an integral part of the gestalt approach to counseling; a client is told to recount the dream "as if it is happening in the present"; dreams are the royal road to integration

exaggeration experiment

similar to paradoxical intervention; emphasized the exaggeration in regard to present moment verbal & nonverbal behavior in the here & now (e.g., "What is your left hand doing? Can you exaggerate the movement?

psychodrama

gestalt therapy uses; incorporates role-playing into the treatment process (e.g., a client might act out an especially painful incident in his/her life; Jacob Moreno pioneered psychodrama & coined the term "group therapy

retroflection

the act of doing to yourself what you really wish to do to someone else

Five layers of neurosis

layers must be peeled away to reach emotional stability; 1) phony layer; 2) phobic layer - fear that others will reject hi/her uniqueness; 3) impasse layer - the person feels struck; 4) implosive layer - willingness to expose the true self; 5) explosive l

unfinished business

when an unexpressed feeling of resentment, rage, guilty, anxiety, or other emotion interferes with present situations and causes difficulties

gestalt principles

1) insight learning - Wolfgang Kohler; 2) Zeigarnik effect - motivated people tend to experience tension due to unfinished tasks and thus they recall unfinished activities better; 3) phi-phenomenon - Wertheimer - the illusion of movement can be achieved v

Max Wertheimer

introduced a system of psychology that the whole is greater than th esume of the parts; original gestalt psychologists studied perceptual phenomenon (e.g., figure/ground relationship)

gestalt dialogue experiment

uses the concepts of the top dog, underdog, and empty chair technique

top dog

critical parent portion of the personality which is very authoritarian and quick to use shoulds and oughts

underdog

part of the personality that is weak, powerless, passive, and full of excuses

the rehearsal experiment

group members can share their rehearsals with one another, and thus awareness of stage fright (e.g. not saying or doing the right thing) and fear of not being accepted by others can be illuminated

rehearsal

a client internally rehearses a situation and is worried that his/her performance will not be up to standard; gets in the way of sponteneity and healthy personal experimentation

making the rounds technique

group exercise; client is instructed to say the same message to everyone in the group

Person-Centered view of mankind

individual is good and moves toward self-actualization

Transactional Analysis view of mankind

messages learned about self in childhood determine whether a person is good or bad, though intervention can change this script

Psychoanalysis view of mankind

deterministic; people are controlled by biological instincts, are unsocialized, irrational; driven by unconscious forces such as sex and aggression

REBT view of mankind

people have a cultural/biological propensity to think in a disturbed manner but can be taught to use their capacity to react differently

Gestalt view of mankind

people are not good or bad; people have the capacity to govern life effectively as "whole"; people are part of their environment and must be viewed as such

Reality Therapy view of mankind

individuals strive to meet basic physiological needs and the need to be worthwhile to self and others; brain as control system tries to meet needs

Individual Psychology view of mankind

mankind is basically good; much of behavior is determined via birth order

Analytic Psychology view of mankind

man strives for individuation (becoming a unique human being) or a sense of self-fulfillment

Behavioral Modification view of mankind

Skinner - human are like other animals: mechanistic an controlled via environmental stimuli and reinforcement contingencies; not good or bad; no self-determination or freedom

Neobehavioristic view of mankind

Bandura - person produces and is a product of conditioning

Logotherapy view of mankind

existential view is that humans are good, rational and retain freedom of choice

Trait-Factor view of mankind

Williamson - through education and scientific data, man can become himself; humans are born with potential for good and evil; others are needed to unleash positive potential; man is mainly rational, not intuitive

ahistoric therapy

any psychotherapeutic model that focuses on the here-and-now rather than the past

fugue state

an individual who experiences memory loss (i.e., amnesia) and leaves home, often with the intention of changing his/her job or identity

senile psychosis

psychosis brought on by old age

DSM

a nosological guide; used to classify and label mental disorders so all mental health workers will mean roughly the same thing (i.e., symptomology, etc.) when they classify a client

nosology

the branch of medicine which concerns itself with the classification of disease

play therapy/art therapy

often preferable to traditional counseling because cultural differences have less of an impact on these types of intervention

maturationist counselors

allow the client to work through old, painful material; counselor acts like a perfect nonjudgmental parent, thus the client can explore the situation in a safe, therapeutic relationship; psychoanalytic and psychodynamic counselors are maturationist.

immediacy

takes place when the counselor explores the client-counselor relationship as it is transpiring right at the moment; counselor dealing with the here-and-now often utilizes this skill; counselor's ability to convey what is happening between the counselor an

assertiveness training (3 communication modes)

3 communication modes used to determine or discriminate client response patterns: assertive, nonassertive, and aggressive

reactive

a given condition is the result of environmental stress (e.g., reactive schizophrenia)

conditioned reflex therapy (excitation & inhibition)

Andrew Salter - excitation - the practice of spontaneously experiencing and expressing true emotions; is seen as necessary in order to attain a state of positive mental health; inhibition - constipation of emotions; opposite of excitation

structuralism

William Wundt's school of thought; interest was in the structure of consciousness; first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879

externalize

to separate the problem from the person

Robert Wubbolding

a reality therapist

Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT)

synthesizes ideas from individual therapy, group therapy, behavior therapy and cognitive modalities; evidence-based; seems to work well with borderline personality disorder; diary cards are used to make a hierarchy of treatment targets with suicidal and s

Virtual Reality Therapy (VRT)

behavioristic approach created by Barbara Rothbaum; clients are hooked to a computer by wearing head gear; the computer simulates real life situations; the client experiencing the virtual environment (VE) generally has the same physiological reactions as

Nancy Chodorow

sociologist and psychoanalytic feminist; believed the domestic ideal caused oppression in women

James W. Fowler

faith development

spirituality

describes a unique personal experience related to feelings of self-actualization, a better understanding of the meaning of life, and an awareness of a divine or Higher Power; Scott Peck's 1978 book The Road Less Traveled helped religion and psychotherapy

informal spirituality

12-step programs promote this brand which has made RS (religious & spiritual) issues more popular with the general public

religion

can be a double-edged sword for clients; religion can have a positive impact (e.g., improved well-being, better marital satisfaction, and less depression); can also have a negative impact: for clients who harbor religious strain, such as difficulty forgiv

recommendations

what a counselor believes must transpire from a psychotherapeutic standpoint; DSM does not recommend a given treatment process

codependency

term which grew out of chemical dependency movement; mainly refers to an individual who is emotionally involved with a chemically dependent person and /or is addicted to a relationship with another person or drugs

ambivalent transference

occurs when a client rapidly shifts his/her emotional attitude toward the counselor based on learning experiences related to authority figures from the past

personalism

the counselor will make the best progress is s/he sees the client primarily as a person who has learned a set of survival skills rather than as a diseased patient; all people must adjust to environmental & geographical demands

sleeper effect

after a period of time, one forgets the communication but remembers the message; when a counselor provides guidance to a client a delay may occur before the client accepts the message

cognitive theory of hypnotism

T.X. Barber

classical analysis

the patient (the analysand) is seen four or five times per week; the treatment often lasts three to five years or more

social learning theory

Albert Bandura; aka vicarious learning or modeling; the person's own behavior increases when s/he sees somebody else getting reinforced for it

role playing

behaviorists champion role-playing (e.g., assertive behavior)

differential reinforcement of other behaviors (DRO)

aka differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA); takes place when the helper reinforces behaviors other than the dysfunctional behavior to reduce the dysfunctional target behavior (e.g., you want a child to quit talking in class so you give h

criticisms of behavior therapy

it does not yield insight; it is mechanistic; it treats symptoms and not the cause; it can be manipulative; generally ignores developmental stages; and it often changes behavior but no underlying feelings; this approach deal with behaviors rather than the

person-centered therapy names

originally called nondirective counseling, then client-centered therapy (client not viewed as a sick patient), then called person-centered therapy to emphasize the power of the person; sometimes called "self-theory" in career counseling;

criticisms of person-centered therapy

this approach is too optimistic and may not be the treatment of choice for severely disturbed individuals or very young children

causes of irrational thought (REBT)

shoulds, oughts, musts, terriblizing, and awfulizing causes irrational thoughts

criticisms of REBT

the approach does not emphasize feelings, the counselor client relationship, and REBT is mechanistic or even sterile; may be too complex for those with psychosis or thought disorders

Beck's dysfunctional thoughts

black-or-white thinking, overgeneralizing based on a single event, personalization (i.e, wrongly attributing an event to yourself), and drawing conclusions without real evidence

criticisms of gestalt

this approach is "gimmicky", puts little or no stock in diagnosis and psychological testing, and at times is "antitheroretical"; on occasion, the approach can abet self-centeredness

criticisms of reality therapy

criticized for downplaying the role of the environment in terms of impacting ethnic minorities; also been deemed "weak" in terms of not dealing with dreams, the past, or traumatic memories; too simplistic, does not take into account developmental stages,

psychological needs (reality therapy)

include belonging, power, freedom, and fun

formula first session task (SFBT)

solution focused brief therapy uses formula first session task (FFST); this is the homework assignment prescribed after the first session

brief therapy

becoming the norm since managed care firms often restrict the number of sessions the clients can attend

case integration

takes place when several helpers from the same agency or different agencies work together without duplicating services to help an individual client

milieu therapy

urges helpers to change the client's entire environment (social and physical) to help the client; treatment is not limited to counseling sessions; in most instances, this takes place in inpatient treatment facilities

crisis intervention

used for persons who are experiencing an expected normal reaction to stress

structuring

the nature and structure of the counseling situation is described during the initial session

flight from reality

client resorts to psychosis to avoid dealing with current life difficulties

therapeutic surrender

when the client psychologically surrenders to a counselor and becomes open with thoughts and feelings; occurs when the client trusts the counselor and so self-discloses

flight to health

analytic concept which asserts that the client has improved to rapidly & the real difficulty (unconscious conflicts) have not been resolved

cognitive dissonance theory

individuals are motivated to reduce tension & discomfort, putting an end to dissonance; predicts that a person will look for things consistent with his/her behavior

prognosis

refers to the probabilities that one can recover from a condition; when dictating on cases, counselors should discuss lengths of treatment and the status expected at the end of treatment