nominal data
no order, uses names for categories
(ex: names of cars)
ordinal data
uses name in order
ratio data
zero is on the scale
(ex: salaries)
Interval data
similar to ordinal but intervals are equally split
(ex: temps)
What are 4 scales of measurement?
Nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio
Reliability
Is test consistent?
*test can be reliable yet not valid
What type of test is used to make predictions?
test- retest
Stability
ability of test score to remain stable when retested
Internal consistency
important for concurrent measurements
parallel forms
reducing practice effects and for predictions
5 types of validity
Content, Criterion, Predictive, Concurrent and Discrimant
Validity
Does test measure what it is suppose to?
*Most important
Content Validity
logical validity; adequate coverage of a subject
(ex: achievement tests)
Criterion Validity
concurrent and predictive
Predictive validity
empirical - ability to predict future behavior
future level is predicted from a current measurement
(ex: aptitude tests)
Concurrent Validity
how does it measure with other instruments measuring the same thing? Comparing the same types of tests
(ex: personality tests)
Discriminant Validity
test will not reflect unrelated variables
reliability coefficient
1.00 perfect score which has no error
correlation coefficient
range from -1.00 to 0.00 to +1.00
median
resilient to extreme scores in a distribution
middle number
Mean
average
mode
most often used
3 measures of central tendencies
mean, median and mode
qualitative data
uses natural language
quanatative data
uses numbers
random sampling
equal chance of being selected
stratified sampling
mini reproduction of the population
IQ tests
achievement test, aptitude test, interest inventory, diagnostic test and personality tests
Ability and aptitude tests
predicts future potential to learn
Achievement tests
tests current accomplishments ; What's been learned?
(ex: reading levels)
Ability- achievement discrepancy model
- identifies range of abilities in group
- plot test scores on graph
-identifies students w/ disabilities; also gifted & talented
-divides group into ability levels
Standardized tests
compares individual aptitudes with others
(ex: SATs)
2 types of personality tests
1. objective
2. projective- no correct answer (ex: ink blot)
Freudian Stages
oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital: emphasizes sexuality (psychosexual)
Erik Eriksons stages
8 stages focus on social relationships (psychosocial)
1. trust vs mistrust (birth to 2)
2. autonomy vs shame/doubt (2-4)
3. iniative vs guilt (4-5)
4. industry vs inferiority (5-12)
5. identity vs role confusion (13-19)
6.intimacy vs isolation (young adulthood)
7.generativity vs stagnation (middle adulthood)
8. ego integrity vs despair (late adulthood)
Piaget
Cognitive development
dualistic thinking
(Perry) Common in teens- things are conceptualized as good/bad or right/wrong. Black or white thinking.
relativistic thinking
things can be right/wrong based on the a specific situation
Piagets 4 stages
Sensorimotor
preoperations
concrete operations
formal operations
conservation
substance's weight, mass and volume remain the same even if it changes shape
(usually mastered in concrete operations stage)
Leading theorist in moral development
Kohlberg
3 levels of moral dev: preconventional, conventional and post conventional
egocentrism
child cannot view world from vantage point of someone else
Father of behaviorism
Watson
preconventional stage
respond to consequences (rewards and punishments)
conventional stage
want to meet the standards of family, society and nation
postconventional stage
self-accepted morality
concerned with universal, ethical principles of justice, dignity and equality of rights
Myers-Briggs type indicator (MBTI)
Jung: extroversion/introversion
sensing/intuition
thinking/feeling
judging/perceiving
anima/ animus
Jung (father of analytic psychology):
anima- femine side
animus- masculine side
empathy
subjective understanding of the client in here-and-now
countertransference
counselor's past is projected onto client
classical conditioning
Pavlov:
conditioned= learned
unconditioned=unlearned
operant conditioning
Skinner:
instrumental learning
reinforcers
tend to increase probability behavior will occur (both positive and negative)
negative reinforcement
Is NOT punishment
centration
focusing on a key feature of an object while not noticing rest (Piaget)
anxiety reaction
client is unaware of source of fear
Id, ego, superego
Id: pleasure principle
ego: reality principle-the police officer
superego: shoulds/musts guides morality;ideal
Freud/Kohlberg/Piaget
F: psychosexual factors
K: moral factors
P: intellectual/cognitive factors
multicultural counselor
must assess client's behavior based on clients culture not counselors
cultural awareness
do not impose counselors values on a client from different cultural perspective
What is race based on?
genetic origin
social learning theory
children who view aggressive behavior will imitate that beh.
contextualism
behavior must be assessed in the context of the culture where behavior occurs
Albert Ellis
Father of Rational-Emotive Therapy (REBT)
Ethnicity
people categorized by national, religious, linguistic or cultural attributes
ethnocentrism
the notion that one's own group is superior; universal phenomenon
acculturation
ethnic and racial minorities adopt cultural beliefs and customs from dominant culture
cognitive dissonance theory
predicts that the person will look for things which are consistent with his behavior
therapeutic surrender
occurs when client is able to trust the counselor and self-discloses
transference
relates to something that happened prior to treatment
sleeper effect
change might not happen immediately after the verbal exchange
ego defense mechanisms
unconscious strategies which distort reality and are based on self-deception to protect self-image
reaction formation
acts the opposite way of how he feels
Pavlov's experiment
Bell= CS
Meat= UCS
group
cluster of people in a recognizable unit
primary groups
stresses healthy coping strategies which can reduce the occurrence of a problem or difficulty
ex: grp that teaches teen pregnancy prevention
secondary group
problem is present but usually not severe; grp includes aspects of prevention
ex: grief group
tertiary group
deals with more individual difficulties that are more serious and longstanding
norms
spoken and unspoken rules on how to behave or not behave in a grp; expected behaviors
group content
what the group is discussing
group process
analyzing the communications, interactions and transactions of the grp
group cohesiveness
forces that bind group members together
3 types of groups
guidance, counseling and psychotherapy
guidance groups (psychoeducational grp)
primary group that is mainly preventative
ex: study groups
counseling group (therapy group)
problem is more severe and more individual work is needed or longer time ; usually has less structure than guidance group
Psychotherapy group
used in inpatient psychiatric hospitals
risky shift phenomenon
group decision will be less conservative than the average grp member's decision prior to the grp discussion
T- group
training group
structured groups
rely on numerous exercises
ex: behavioral grps
Who makes excellent grp members?
those who are verbal, open to feedback from others and believe in grp therapy
open vs closed groups
open: new members at any time; changing membership
closed: no new members ; more cohesiveness
group setting
persons who are similar sit next to each other
social class tend to mean more than race in terms of group seating
universality
we are not the only ones in the world with that given problem (mutuality also used)
ideal numbers for groups: adolescent? children?
adolescent: 5-6 members
children: 3-4
group risks
leaders must inform participants that they cannot guarantee confidentiality; participation is voluntary
group dynamics
interrelationships and interactions between members
group unity
feeling of belonging, oneness, or togetherness
roles within a group
energizer: stimulates enthusiasm in group
scapegoat: person everyone blames
gatekeeper: keeps everyone on task and participating
interrogater: asks never-ending questions
follower: goes along with group
3 types of member roles
task: helps the group carry out a tasks
maintenance: strengthens group processes
self-serving: meets own individual needs at expense of grp
role conflict
when there is a discrepancy between way a member expected to behave and how he actually behaves
group stages
initial- forming, exploring, orientation
transition- power and control, storming
working- norming stage, cohesion, negotiation
termination- closure, seperation
blocking
used by leader to stop hurtful behavior in group
horizontal vs vertical intervention
horizontal: work with grp as a whole
vertical: work with individuals within the group
interpersonal vs intrapersonal leaders
inter: favor here-and- now
intra: work on past
limitations of group work
#NAME?
Advantages of group work
#NAME?
What will enhance counseling tx when working with children under 10?
(Corey and Corey) parental involvement can reduce resistance and improve cooperation
Leadership styles
.autocratic or authoritarian- make decisions for members
.laissez faire or hands off-little involvement
.democratic-allows input from members but allows grp members to have input into decisions (best style usually)
.speculative- charismatic, rely on personal power or charm
.confrontive-facilitator revelas the impact his behavior has on himself as well as impact grp members have on him
Self-efficacy theory
(Bandura) One's belief or expectation of being successful in an occupation causes you to gravitate toward that occupation.
Strong Interest Inventory (SCII)
(Holland) measures interests not abilities
aptitude tests
speculates whether or not you could capture these skills with training and experience ; attempts to measure potential.
appraisal
process of assessing or estimating attributes
-surveys, observations, interviews, tests
dichotomy
presented with two opposing choices
Ipsative measures
compare traits within the same individual, they do not compare a person to other persons who took the instrument; does not reveal absolute strengths
normative tests
individual's score is evaluated by comparing it to others who took the same test
construct validity
any trait you cannot directly measure of observe can be a construct.
ex: ego strength
Confounding
occurs when undesirable variable isn't controlled by researcher is introduced in experiment (contaminating variable)
Basic research is done for
to advance the understanding of a theory
applied research
done to advance knowledge of how theories, skills and techniques can be used in practical applications
variable
a behavior that can exist on at least 2 levels or conditions (capable of change)
IV
independent variable-researcher controls or manipulates
DV
expresses the outcome of data
control group
does not receive IV
experimental group
receives the IV
hypothesis
statement which can be tested regarding the relationship of IV and DV
null hypothesis
the IV doesn't affect the DV
Type 1 error
alpha error- rejects null hypothesis when its true
Type II error
beta error- accept null hypothesis when its false
Who created 1st IQ test?
Binet
WISC-IV
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children 6-17 yrs
What is an above average IQ score?
above 100
Projective test
client will project own personality
3 types: association (inkblot), completion (complete sentences with feelings) and construction (draw a person)
predictive validity
important with aptitude test
School selection test assess what?
aptitude
Standard error of measurement
how accurate or inaccurate a test score is. Low standard error means high reliability
What does increasing test length do?
raises reliability
Distribution of scores
when normal mean will be 100 standard deviation will be 15
What type of validity when evaluating school curriculum?
content
FERPA: if parents think records are wrong what is their rights?
Ask school to correct records
- schools don't need to inform before destroying records
Assessment of guidance program includes all but
gather info about student needs
identify current resources
study current program delivery
gather perceptions regarding program
evaluate performance of indiv. counselors
(evaluate is answer)
Below 80 on IQ test indicates
developmental disability
What theorist has humanist approach to child development?
Maslow
Who advanced theory that child can't do certain tasks until psychologically ready?
Piaget
Responsive services means
responding to a situation
Locus of control
person belief about who controls his life
Tuckmans model of group development
Norming means agreement
What is an essential element of guidance curriculum?
career development
What is a type of psychodynamic therapy?
free association
Behavioral objectives
demonstrates specific and measurable ; mastery over a subject
Affective development component of guidance curriculum must include what?
feelings
ASCA responsive services
doesnt include planning (not responsive)
Attribution theory of motivation
need to feel good about self
average score on IQ test
100
ASCA national model addresses?
counselors spend most time working with small % of students
IDEA
schools must provide least restrictive environment possible for special educ.
No Child Left Behind
close achievement gaps for at-risk groups
ASCA National Standards for students
maximize student ability to learn
Test that covers entire range of subject
Content validity
Essential object of career development program
develop career awareness
What theory of development believes learning is viewed as a personal act to fulfill ones potential?
Humanism
IEP
parents can review students complete education file
also mandates preschool for those qualified
Guidance curriculum
is not responsive
What are 3 elements of guidance curriculum?
academic, career and personal development