Psychoanalysis
Focus is instinctual drives, unconscious motivation, and the past. Therapy is long-term, therapist is detached, and therapist is usually a psychiatrist. Chief figure is Sigmund Freud.
Transference
Client's distorted view of the relationship with a therapist based on past associations. (You're just like my father)
Analysis of transference
Counselor encourages transference and then interprets the emotions
Countertransference
A psychotherapist's own repressed feelings in reaction to the emotions, experiences, or problems of a person undergoing treatment.
Id
refers to basic instincts or drives toward gratification and pleasure. Biological and psychological gratification "very young children are selfish
Ego
an overall complex of defense mechanisms. The ego aids the individual in accomplishing real world objectives like educational or career goals. In order to function in reality the ego must repress the id and postpone gratification by developing defense mechanisms.
Superego
A person's moral code, whether an action is good or bad, right or wrong. The superego governs the ego, however the inability to satisfy the superego (pride and self love) results in punishments (shame, guilt, and other conflict) which influences adult behavior
Freudian view of human nature
Freud divided the mind into three components, called the ego, superego, and id. The "ego" is again the conscious aspect of the individual's mind, while the "superego" and "id" are unconscious. The "superego" contains internalized rules, morals, and expectations of appropriate behavior. The "id" consists of instinctual desires, particularly sexual desire, and provides energy to think and act, often in ways the superego disapproves of. Thus, for Freud, the ego must strive to bring balance between the primal desires of the id and the strict controls of the superego, in order to develop a healthy personality.
Clinical evidence for postulating the unconsciuos includes the following:
(1) DREAMS, which are symbolic representations of unconscious needs, wishes, and conflicts; (2) Slips of the tongue and forgetting, for example a familiar name; (3) Posthypnotic suggestions; (4) material dervied from free association techniques; (5) material derived from projective techniques; and (6) the symbolic content of psychotic symptoms.
Defense Mechanisms
1) Repression - forgetting a childhood trauma. 2) Reaction formation - being overly kind to someone you despise. 3) Denial - refusing to accept that one has a drinking problem. 4) Projection - asking your partner if he is mad at you, when you are mad at him. 5) Displacement - being angry at the boss and therefore coming home and kicking the dog. 6) Rationalization - claiming no remorse over the promotion you did not receive in order to conceal your disappointment. 7) Sublimation - going jogging when you feel amorous and your partner is not available. 8) Regression - a teenager whose parents are contemplating divorce starts wetting the bed. 9) Ritual and undoing - the woman who cheats on her spouse comes home with a gift for her husband. 10) Compensation - a person with total deafness becoming a master painter. 11) Identification - a high school drop-out joining a gang. 12) Introjection - an abused child becoming an abuser.
Psychosexual Stages
Oral (0-1), Anal (1-3), Phallic (3-6), Latency (6-12), Genital (12-18)
Analytical Psychology or Jungian Psychology
the mind has three aspects: the conscious mind, or "ego," the "personal unconscious," where memories of the individual's experiences may be stored, and the "collective unconscious," which contains the wisdom of all human experience and is common to all human beings, but which is not directly accessible to the conscious ego, and is only manifested through dreams and spiritual experiences. Thus, for Jungian analysts, the healthy person is one who has brought into consciousness the wise guidance of the collective unconscious and harmonized this with their personal desires and experiences.
Carl Jung
We experience the unconscious through colective symbols encountered in all aspects of life: in dreams, art, religion, and the "collective" symbolic dramas we enact in our relationships and life pursuits. The possession of complexes does not in itself cause neurosis, but the denial of their existence causes the complex to become pathological. Likewise, identification with a complex is a frequent source of neurosis. The key in analysis is not to get rid of the complexes, but to minimize their negative effects by understanding the part they play in eliciting behavioral and emotional reactions.
Behavioral Theories
explain personality in terms of reactions to external stimuli. This school of thought was initiated by B. F. Skinner. According to these theories, people's behavior is formed by processes such as operant conditioning.
Trait Theories
People have certain characteristics which partly determine their behavior. Most common Extroversion vs Introversion
Social-cognitive theorists
Emphasize the situation the person is in and the person's expectations, habits, and belief system. This approach claims that the environment, cognitions, and a person's behavior all have an influence on each other in a complex pattern called reciprocal determinism, which shapes one's distinctive personality. We learn ways of reacting to situations in our environment in part because of rewards and punishment. However, once acquired, our habits, behaviors, and cognitions influence how we respond to others and to situations.
Albert Bandura
A social learning theorist suggested that the forces of memory and emotions worked in conjunction with environmental influences.
Self-efficacy is acquired through four factors
a) having experiences in mastering new skills and overcoming obstacles b) having successful and competent role models in one's life c) receiving feedback and encouragement from others d) self awareness and management of one's inner state (thoughts and emotions)
locus of control
This is the degree to which people believe they have control over their lives. One's expectations of success or failure, control over events, or lack of control, may create a self-fulfilling prophecy; one's expectations can actually lead to behavior that makes the expectation occur. Typically people with an internal locus of control believe they are responsible for what happens in their lives and that they control their own destiny. Those with an external locus of control tend to believe that the control is outside of them - luck, fate, or other people control their life circumstances. Julian Rotter developed an Internal/External Scale which as been used in research extensively. He stated that an internal locus of control typically emerges at a very young age, but can change depending on later life experiences in society and one's perceptions of their life experiences.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Building on the writings and observations of Carl Jung, during World War II Isabel Briggs Myers and her mother Katharine Cook Briggs delineated personality types by constructing the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). This model was later elaborated further by David Keirsey. The model begins by accepting Extroversion vs. Introversion as basic, and adding an additional three dimensions:
Humanistic Theories
emphasized that people have free will and that they play an active role in determining how they behave. This approach places less emphasis on genes, past learning, or unconscious conflicts and dwells mostly on the unique human capacity to shape one's own future through freedom of choice and free will. Accordingly, humanistic psychology focuses on subjective experiences of persons instead of factors that determine behavior. This approach explores human potential and the strengths of the human being. Chief figures: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Viktor Frankl, Rollo May
Abraham Maslow
developed the view that the human needs for security, love, belonging, self-esteem and self-actualization were more important than physiological needs for food, sleep and sex. He developed a theory of a hierarchy of human needs, of which the highest were the need for "self-actualization
Maslow Hierarchy of Human Needs
Physiological, Safety, Love/Belonging, Esteem, Actualization
Carl Rogers
basic tenet was that if unconditional positive regard (Respect), genuineness and honesty (Congruence), and empathic understanding (Empathy) were present in a relationship, growth and psychological healing would occur. Therapist utilizes active listening, relfection, and clarification while providing empathy.
Erik Erikson
Erikson believed that social factors also played a vital role.His model of psychosocial development consists of eight developmental stages, occuring in a fixed order: 1. Trust vs. Mistrust (between birth and 1 yr); 2. Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt (ages 2 to 3); 3. Initiative vs Guilt (ages 4 to 5); 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (ages 6 to puberty); 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence); 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood) 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood) 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood) When the outcome of a crisis is favorable, the person achieves a certain virtue or strength; when it is unsuccessful, the person develops a maladaptive character and continues to struggle with this conflict later in life.
Alfred Adler
Stresses the unity of personality. Individauls begin to form an approach to life somewhere in the first 6 years of living. Focus on conscious aspects of behavior, and the importance of social forces in one's development and motivation; first to describe the importance of birth order as a contributing factor.Adler found that there were two parenting styles that could cause problems in adulthood: Pampering and Neglect.
Existential Therapy
Focus on importance on finding meaning. "Those who have a why to live can bear with almost any how" People form their lives by the choices that they make. Uses few techniques and avoids psychological tests. The therapist confronts clients with the idea that they are responsible for their own lives. The "normal" anxiety may be healthy and motivational and lead to responsibility.
Person-Centered Therapy
It is used to help a person achieve personal growth and/or come to terms with a specific traumatic event or psychological problem. The method has proved effective and popular, although it has been criticized for its lack of structure. The strength of the approach lies in the emphasis of harmonious relationships, based on respect, congruence, and empathy, in promoting healthy psychological development.
Adlerian Therapy
Relationship based on mutual respect and identifying, exploring, and disclosing mistaken goals and faulty assumptions. This is followed by a reeducation of the client toward a useful side of life. The main aim of therapy is to develop the client's sense of belonging and to assist in the adoption of behaviors and processes characterized by community feeling and social interest.