REM sleep and dreaming
cerebral blood flow increases in visual association cortex, decreases in primary visual and prefrontal cortices. matches dream qualities (visual, movement, auditory, etc.)
SWS and dreaming
dreamlike images can occur in SWS; CBF decreases in most brain areas, but can increase in visual and auditory cortices
Insomnia
inability to get enough sleep to feel rested. 25% of population acutely, 10% chronically
Sleep apnea
type of insomnia. failure to breathe while sleeping, so wake up more and don't get good sleep
Narcolepsy
sleep at odd times. sleep attack is a sudden urge to sleep, typically lasts 2-5 minutes. cause: REM components activated at the wrong time. treatment: monoamine agonists
Cataplexy
REM paralysis triggered during waking. stimulus: emotional or physical arousal
Sleep paralysis
occurs prior to sleep onset or at waking. hypnagogic hallucinations: dream intrusion in sleep paralysis
REM sleep behavior disorder
REM without atonia - no paralysis during REM. person acts out dreams
SWS disorders
somnambulism - sleep walking
pavor nocturnus - night terrors
sleep-related eating disorder
--> childhood disorders, typically remit with age
Sexually dimorphic behaviors
occur in different forms, probabilities, and circumstances in males and females in a species
Sex differences
genetic/physiological differences between male and female
Gender differences
socially influenced by culture and learning
Gender identity
how people identify sexually - male or female
Gender role
activities and traits associated by society with a particular sex
Gender identity and role
specifically human. ideas about what men and women are supposed to do
Each human cell
23 chromosome pairs - 46 total. contain genetic material (DNA). individual DNA segments: genes
Gametes
sperm or ovum. sex cells, have 23 chromosomes. created by meiosis rather than mitosis
Sex chromosomes
females: two X. males: XY. male gametes divide, half get X, half get Y. father determines sex of offspring
Organizational effects
prenatal. development of sex organs and CNS
Activational effects
later in life, production and release of gametes
Gonads
testes or ovaries. undifferentiated until 7th week.
SRY gene
signals testis-determining factor: protein that differentiates gonads into testes. absence: become ovaries
Mullerian system
female internal sex organs precursor
Wolffian system
male internal sex organs precursor
Anti-mullerian hormone
stops female system development (defeminizing effect). secreted from testes
Androgens
testosterone and dihydrotestosterone, stimulate wolffian system development (masculinizing effect)
External genitalia development
dihydrotestosterone stimulates male development, absence becomes female development
Persistent mullerian duct syndrome
don't produce, or lack receptors for anti-mullerian hormone. XY males with internal organs for both sexes. masculinization without defeminization. usually neither system functions
Androgen insensitivity syndrome
XY male that lacks androgen receptors. no internal sex organs, defeminization without masculinization. external genitalia is female, female gender identity develops. no menstruation or pubic/axillary hair.
Turner syndrome
XO female. one x chromosome, no ovaries but have female internal and external sex organs
Primary sex characteristics
present at birth, organizational hormone effects. gonads, internal sex organs, genitalia
Secondary sex characterstics
appear at puberty, activational hormone effects. breast enlargement, facial hair, pubic hair
GnRH
gonadotropin-releasing hormone. released from hypothalamus at onset of puberty. stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete gonadotropic hormones (FSH and LH)
Estrogens
female hormone. ovaries secrete estradiol; stimulates secondary sex characteristics. does not produce axillary and pubic hair
Androgens - testosterone
male hormones. testes secrete testosterone; stimulate secondary sex characteristics. gonads produce low levels of opposite sex-hormones
Declining age of female puberty
caused by increased fat levels. fat cells secrete leptin, which affects onset of puberty. could also be linked to high sugar-sweetened beverage consumption
Menstrual cycle
monthly variation in hormones and fertility in female primates. anterior pituitary releases FSH, which promotes growth of ovarian follicle. follicle produces estradiol as it develops. increased estradiol --> LH from anterior pituitary --> ovulation
Corpus luteum
remnant of follicle that releases estradiol and progesterone - prepares uterus for implantation
Estrous cycle
cycle of estrogens, fertility, and sexual receptivity in non-primate mammals. short, seasonal, and closely linked with sexual activity
Adult male rodent sexual behaviors
intromission (penetration), pelvic thrusting. characteristic of all male mammals
Adult female rodent sexual behavior
lordosis response, receptivity, proceptivity (initiating copulation, eg nuzzling), attractiveness (eg odors). analogue cross-species behaviors, but many differences
Male rodent sexual behavior and testosterone
required. castration blocks male rat sexual behavior, testosterone injections restore behavior
Pituitary hormones
oxytocin and prolactin. released at ejaculation
Oxytocin
milk ejection in lactating females. facilitates orgasm (smooth muscle contraction) in males and females. from posterior pituitary
Prolactin
milk production in females. inhibits male sexual behavior (may facilitate refractory period). from anterior pituitary
Female adult rodent sexual behavior and hormones
requires estrogen followed by progesterone. facilitates receptivity, proceptivity, and attractiveness. ovariectomized rats and those lacking estrogen receptors are not sexually receptive. progesterone must be primed by estradiol for effects
Organizational effects of androgens on female behavior
lack of early androgen exposure leads to adult behavioral feminization. early androgen exposure promotes behavioral defeminization: estrogens don't elicit receptivity to males because circuits were blocked by androgens. behavioral masculinization: testost
Activational effects of sex hormones in women
female hormones don't control women's sexual behavior. may affect sexual interest, more likely to initiate sex mid-cycle. desire to avoid or become pregnant. more autosexual activity at mid-cycle. androgens may increase estradiol's effects on women's sexu
Activational effects of sex hormones in men
similar relationship between hormones and sexual behavior as other mammals. positive association between testosterone and sexual activity. age of peak testosterone level associated with increased sexual desire. degree of decline with age varies. castratio
Pheromones
released by one animal, affects behavior and physiology of another. usually via taste or smell, used in sexual attraction
VNO
vomeronasal organ. sensory receptors near olfactory receptors. present in all mammals except cetaceans. mainly responds to nonvolatile compounds in urine. projects to accessory olfactory bulb to medial nucleus of the amygdala to hypothalamus
Lee Boot effect
female mice housed together disrupt others' estrous cycles
Whitten effect
synchronizaiton of estrous cycles of groups of females when exposed to male odor
Vandenbergh effect
acceleration of female puberty caused by male odor
Bruce effect
termination of pregnancy when exposed to male odor other than fathers'. involves learning and pheromones
VNO and mice
informs on sex, estrous status, and familiarity of other mice. male mice with genetically dysfunctional VNO cannot tell males from females, try to mate with male and female mice, don't attack male invaders. male mice with non-functional primary olfactory
Pregnancy block
bruce effect. only occurs prior to embryo implantation. observed in rodents. can interrupt late-term pregnancy in other species (gelada monkeys). evolutionary adaptive functions for females: save reproductive resources for more dominant males
Androstenol
male and female pheromone in sweat
Androstadienone
axillary steroids much more concentrated in male sweat
Estratetraene
putative pheromone found in female urine. steroid
Sex differences in pheromonal responses
androstadienone (male sweat extract) shows positive mood effects in women, negative effects in men. sex difference in hypothalamic responses to estratetraene (female urine extract)
Spinal mechanisms in male sexual behavior
higher spinal damage doesn't prevent erection, ejaculation. lumbar spinothalamic cells generate ejaculation in rats. brain mechanisms can activate or inhibit these reflexes
MPA
medial preoptic area. in anterior hypothalamus. key to make sexual behavior. neurons activate during copulation, stimulation induces and lesions disrupt copulation
SDN
sexually dimorphic nucleus of MPA. larger in male rats, size controlled by developmental androgens. prenatal stress reduces size. lesions decrease male rodent sexual activity
Medial amygdala
larger in male rats. lesions impair male rat sexual behavior. mating increases fos production. projects to the MPA, dense with androgen receptors
Neural control of male sexual behavior path
Medial amygdala (excitatory) --> MPA (inhibitory) --> periaqueductal gray (excitatory) --> nucleus paragigantoceellularis (nPGi of medulla; inhibitory via 5HT) --> spinal motor neurons
VHM
ventrodmedial nucleus of the hypothalamus. key female structure. lesions block and stimulation increases lordosis. mating associated with increased fos in VMH and medial amygdala. infusions of estrogen/progesterone restore sexual activity in ovariectomize
Neural control of female sexual behavior path
medial amygdala --> VMH --> PAG --> nPGi --> spinal motorneurons (all excitatory)
Emotion
feelings, physiological changes, behaviors. inform our behaviors
Components of emotional responses
cognitive/experiential/subjective: feelings. self-report (questionnaires and interviews). behavioral: muscle responses. observed or assessed with EMG. physiological: CNS - EEG, brain imaging, ANS - sympathetic/parasympathetic organ activity. hormonal: cat
Amygdala
directs attention to emotionally significant stimuli. lateral nucleus gets input from cortex, hippocampus, and thalamus. LA projects to basal nucleus, ventral striatum, and dorsomedial nucleus of thalamus. LA and B project to central nucleus and ventromed
Central nucleus
coordinates threat response. threat stimuli increase CE neural firing and fos. CE lesions decrease behavioral and hormonal responses to threat and stress. CE stimulation induces signs of fear, agitation
Conditioned emotional responses
some fear stimuli elicit responses automatically (loud noises, pain). learning: association of fear stimuli with neutral stimuli (classical conditioning)
Aggressive behaviors
species-typical. expressed via genetically organized neural circuits, usually concern reproduction or threat responses.
Threat
warning another animal of impending attack
Defensive
actual aggression or threat behavior in response to threat
Submissive
surrender" in response to threat
Predation
attack on another species, usually for food