Scientific Method
1. Observing some phenomenon
2. Formulating hypotheses and predictions
3. Testing through empirical research
4. Drawing conclusions
5. Evaluating the theory
Observation
Conducting a scientific inquiry that involves observing some phenomenon in the world.
Hypothesis
An educated guess that derives logically from a theory; a prediction that can be tested
Drawing Conclusions
If a research finding is shown again and again, replicated, across different researchers and different specific methods, it is considered reliable
Evaluation
Also Meta-Analysis- A method that allows researchers to combine the results of different studies on a similar topic in order to establish the strength of an effect
Variable
Anything that can change
Population
The entire group about which the investigator wants to draw conclusions
Random Sample
A sample that gives every member of the population an equal chance of being selected
Naturalistic Observation
The observation of behavior in a real world setting
Descriptive Research
Research that determines the basic dimensions of a phenomenon, defining what it is, how often it occurs, and so on
Surveys
Presents a a standard set of questions to obtain people's self-reported attitudes or beliefs about a particular topic
Case Studies
An in-depth look at a single individual
Correlation Research
Research that examines the relationships between variables, whose purpose is to examine whether and how two variables change together
Correlation Coefficient
The degree of relationship between two variables is expressed as a numerical value, which is most commonly represented by the letter r
Positive Correlations
The longer the lecture, the more you yawn; The more you study, the higher your test grade
Negative Correlations
The longer the lecture, the lower your attentiveness; The more you party, the lower your test grade
Correlation and Causation
Correlation does not equal causation; Correlation only means that two variables change together
Third Variable Problem
The circumstance where a variable that has not been measured accounts for the relationship between two other variables. Third variables are also known as confounds
Experiments
A carefully regulated procedure in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables that are believed to influence some other variable
Random Assignment
Researchers' assignment of participants to groups by chance, to reduce the likelihood that an experiment's results will be due to preexisting differences between groups
Independent Variable
A manipulated experimental factor; the variable that the experimenter changes to see what its effects are
Dependent Variable
The outcome; The factor that can change in an experiment in response to changes in the independent variable
Experimental Group
The participants in an experimenter who receive the drug or other treatment under study; those who are exposed to change that the independent variable represents
Control Group
The participants in an experiment who are as much like the experimental group as possible and who are treated in every way like the experimental group except for a manipulated factor, the independent variable
Experimenter Bias
Occurs when the experimenter's expectations influence the outcome of the research
Participant Bias
Occurs when the behavior of research participants during the experiment is influenced by how they think they are supposed to behave or their expectations about what is happening to them
Placebo Effect
Occurs when participants' expectations, rather than the experimental treatment, produce an outcome
Placebo
In a drug study, a harmless substance that has no physiological effect, given to participants in a control group so they are treated identically to the experimental group except for the active agent
Double Blind Experiments
An experimental design in which neither the experimenter nor the participants are aware of which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group until the results are calculated
Descriptive Statistics
Mathematical procedures that are used to describe and summarize sets of data in a meaningful way
Mean
A measure of central tendency that is the average for a sample
Median
A measure of central tendency that is the middle score in a smaple
Mode
A measure of central tendency that is the most common score in a sample
Standard Deviation
A measure of dispersion that tells us how much scores in a sample differ from the mean of the sample
Inferential Statistics
Mathematical methods that are used to indicate whether results for a sample are likely to generalize to a population
Statistical Significance
The standard is that .05 or less that the differences are due to chance
Research Ethics
A set of principles about the treatment that participants in research have a right to expect
Informed Consent
All participants must know what their participation will involve and what risks might develope
Confidentiality
Researchers are responsible for keeping all of the data they gather on individuals completely confidential
Debriefing
Before or after the study has been completed, the researchers should inform the participants of its purpose and the methods they used
Deception
The researcher deceives participants about the purpose of the study, perhaps leading them to believe that it has some other purpose
Ethics of Research With Animals
Researcher must follow stringent ethical guidelines, whether animals or humans are the subjects in their studies