Attitude
A predisposition to respond to a particular object in a generally favorable or unfavorable way.
Attitudes influence...
Behavior and attention. The way in which a person perceives and responds to the world.
Three components of attitude
1) Beliefs or cognitions - an object label, rules for applying the label, and a set of cognitions associated w/ that label.
2) Evaluation - a direction (positive or negative) and an intensity (very weak to very strong).
3) Behavioral predisposition - a pr
Relationships among the components of attitude
All have the same object. Each can be independently measured because they are distinct. We can find relationships among them. The degree of consistency between components is related to other characteristics of the attitude (e.g. feelings, beliefs, actions
Attitude formation
1) Reinforcement (instrumental conditioning)
2) Associations of stimuli and responses (classical conditioning)
3) Observing others (observational learning)
Functions of attitude
1) Heuristic or instrumental function - provide a simple and efficient means of evaluating objects
2) Schematic or knowledge function - provide us w/ a basis for making inferences about members of a category
3) Attitudes define the self and maintain self-
Attitude structure (two types)
1) Vertical structures signify that a minor belief is derived from or dependent on a primitive belief.
2) Horizontal structures exist when an attitude is linked to more than one set of underlying beliefs.
Cognitions
The elements of a cognitive structure. They are an individual's perception of personal attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.
Cognitive consistency
Consistency among a person's cognitions is widespread. Most people's cognitions are consistent with one another. If an inconsistency develops, people are motivated to restore harmony between those elements.
Balance theory
Deals w/ the relationships among three cognitions. Two types of relationships may exist between elements:
1) Sentiment relations - evaluations directed toward objects and people
2) Unit relations - the association between elements
Balanced system (balance theory)
All three sentiment relations are positive, or one is positive and the other two are negative.
Imbalanced system (balance theory)
Two of the relationships between elements are positive and one is negative, or all three are negative.
Three basic ways of restoring balance
1) Changing attitudes so the sign of one relation is reversed (+ to -, or - to +)
2) Changing a positive or negative relation to a null relation
3) Differentiating the attributes of the other person/object
Restoring balance
Balance is usually restored in whichever way is easiest. Easiest mode is to change the weakest relationship.
Theory of cognitive dissonance
Deals w/ consistency between two or more elements (behaviors and attitudes). Two situations in which dissonance occurs:
1) After a decision
2) When one acts in a way that is inconsistent with one's beliefs
Postdecision dissonance
When we make a decision, there are some cognitions that are consonant with that decision AND other cognitions that are dissonant with it. Dissonant cognitions create an unpleasant psychological state that we are motivated to reduce or eliminate.
The dissonance effect
The greater the reward or incentive for engaging in counter attitudinal behavior, the less the resulting attitude change.
Dissonance
Occurs when a person behaves in a way that is inconsistent with his or her attitudes.
Incentives and dissonance
High incentives tend to produce less dissonance, thus resulting in little attitude change. Low incentives tend to produce more dissonance, thus resulting in more attitude change.
Relationship between attitudes and behavior
Modest correlation.
Four variables/reasons explaining the modest correlation of attitudes and behaviors
1) The activation of the attitude
2) The characteristics of the attitude
3) The correspondence between attitude and behavior
4) Situational constraints on behavior
Activation of the attitude
Activation = brought from memory into conscious awareness. Usually activated by exposure of the person to its object, particularly if the attitude was originally formed through direct experience w/ the object.
Four characteristics that influence attitude/behavior relationship
1) Degree of consistency between the affective (evaluative) and cognitive components
2) Extent to which the attitude is grounded in personal experience
3) Strength of the attitude
4) Stability of the attitude over time
Characteristics of the attitude
1) Affective-cognitive consistency - greater the consistency between cognition and evaluation, greater the strength of that attitude-behavior relation
2) Direct experience - attitudes based on direct experience are more predictive of subsequent behavior
3
Degree of correspondence
The number of elements that are the same in behavior and attitude.
Attitude-behavior correspondence
Every behavior involves a target, action, context, and time. Measures of attitude and behavior should involve the same elements to predict behavior. The larger the number of elements in common, the greater the correlation between attitude and behavior.
Situational constraint
An influence on behavior due to the likelihood that other persons will learn about the behavior and respond positively or negatively to it. Often determines whether our behavior is consistent w/ our attitudes.
Influence of attitude and situational constraints on behavior
A STRONG relationship exists between behavior and attitude when the individual has a STRONG attitude, and situational influences encourage behavior CONSISTENT w/ that attitude.
A WEAK relationship exists when situational influences produce pressure to beh
The reasoned action model
Based on the assumption that behavior is rational. Incorporates several factors that have been shown to affect the consistency between attitudes and behavior.
Theory of reasoned action
Behavior is determined by behavioral intention, which is influenced by attitude and subjective norms.
Subjective norm
The individual's perception of others' beliefs about whether a behavior is appropriate or not (a form of situational constraint).
Assessment of the reasoned action model
Has been used to predict behavior like whether a mother will breastfeed her baby. Criticized because it assumes our behavior is determined largely by our intentions (our past behavior may be more influential than our intentions).
Perceived behavioral control
Whether we have the resources or the ability to carry out the intention.
Theory of planned behavior
Our behavior may be affected by intentions AND perceived behavioral control.