Exam Psych 2

Conditioning

Systematic procedure which associations and responses to specific stimuli are learned

Reflex

Auto behavior occurs involuntary in response to stimulus with no prior learning. Shows little variablity from one occurence to another

Classical Conditioning

AKA-Pavlovian Conditioning. Process in which originally neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that naturally creates a response. Dog begins to relate bell sound to food

Unconditioned stimulus

Stimulus that normally produces involuntary response. Food in dog experiment

Unconditioned response

Unlearned or involuntary respsonse to an unconditioned stimulus. Dog slobber to food

Conditioned stimulus

Neutral stimulus that through repeated association with unconditioned stimulus begins to show a conditioned response.

Conditioned response

Response achieved by conditioned stimulus

Startled response

Babies outstretch arms, legs, change in heart rate, blood pressure, etc

Higher order conditioning

Process which a neutral stimulus takes on conditioned properties through pairing with a conditioned stimulus. Pairing light with bell sound for food

Key variables for classical conditioning

Strength, timing, frequency. Strong stimulus-Stronger response. Timing-Bell ringing right before food. Frequency-Increases pairing when constant

Predicability

Likelihood that occurence of unconditioned stimulus can be anticipated

Extinction

Classical conditioning-procedure withholding unconditioned stimulus and presenting conditiong stimulus alone. Reduces conditioned response

Spontaneous recovery

Recurrence of extinguished condtioned response. Usually follows resting period

Stimulus generalization

Process by which conditioned response is associationed with stimlus that is similar but not identical to oriniginal conditioned stimulus. Dog salivates to high pitch and also low pitch

Stimlus discrimination

Organism learns to respond only to specific stimulus and not to similiar ones. Dog salivates only in repsonse to bright lights, not low lights

Conditioned taste aversion

Relating food that made you sick with nausea

Operant conditioning

increase or decrease in probability that a behavior will recur is affected by reinforcement or punishment. Conditioned respsonse is voluntary, and consequence follows

reinforcer

any event that increases the probability of a recurrence of the response that preceded it. Working hard to get higher pay

Positive reinforcement

Presentation of stimulus after a response in order to increase liklihood that the response will recur-Rewarding dog treat for trick

Negative reinforcement

Removal of unpleasant stimulus after response to increase likelihood of response to recur. Taking med for pain, response is taking meds

Primary reinforcer

reinforcer that has survival value (food, water) for an organism

Secondary reinforcer

Neutral stimulus that initally has no value but becomes rewarding when linked with primary reinforcer (Cars, Money)

Skinner Box

Developed by BF Skinner. Box containing a responding mechanism and device capable of delivering consequence to an animal in the box because of desired response

Shaping

Selective reinforcement of behaviors that gradually come closer to desired respsonse

Punishment

Presenting undesirable stimulus or removing desired stimulus to decrease probability that a preceding repsonse will occur.

Positive Punishment

Adding something unpleasant to a situation. Decreases an unwanted behavior

Negative punishment

Removal of pleasant stimulus. Taking away car if out past curfew

Primary Punisher

Stimulus that is naturally painful or unpleasant-Spanking

Secondary Punisher

Neutral stimulus that has no negative value but acquires punishing when linked with primary punishment. -Angry expression

Learned helplessness

Reaction of a person that feels poweless to control punishment and stops making any responses.

Key variables of operant conditioning

Strength, time, frequency.

Sched of reinforcement

Pattern of presentation of reinforcer over time

Fixed interval sched

Sched of reinforcement in which reinforcer (reward) is delivered after specified interval of time, provided that the repsonse occurs at least once in interval-Response rate drops but increases near end of interval

Variable interval sched

Reinforcer is delivered after predetermined but varying amounts of time, given that response occurs at least one after each interval-Response is slow and regular

Fixed ratio interval

Reinforcer is delivered after specified number of responses has occured-Response is fast and regular

Variable ratio interval

reinforcer is delivered after predetermined but variable amounts of respsonses has occured-Response is regular and high

Extinction in operant

process by which probability of response is reduced when reinforcement no longer follows the respsonse

Social learning theory

banduras theory that suggest organisms learn new responses by observing behavior of a model, then imitatiing it. AKA-Observational learning theory

Modeling

Process critical to observation learning. Observer matches behavior with model

Insight

Finding a solution to problem by thinking about it in a new way

Latent learning

Occurs in absense of direct reinforcement and is not necassarily demonstrated through observable behavior

Cognitive maps

Mental representation that enable people to navigate from starting point to unseen destination

Memory

Ability to recall past events, images, prev learned info. Storage system that allows rentention and retrieval of previously learned info

Encoding

Organizing of sensory info so the nervous system can process it

Levels of proccessing approach

Theory of memory that the brain encodes and processes info in different ways, extent, and levels

Transfer appropriate processing

Processing of info that is similar for both encoding and retrieval of the info

Encoding specificity principle

Principle that the effectiveness of specific retrieval cue depends on how well it matches with orginally encoded info

Storage

Process of maintaining or keeping info readily available as well as locations-also known as memory stores

Sensory Memory

mechanism that performs inital encoding of sensory stimuli and provides brief storage of them- aka-sensory register

Memory Span

Number of items a person can produce from short term memory, usually consists of one or two chunks

Chunks

Manageable and meaningful units of info organized in familiar way for easy encoding, storage, and retrieval

Rehearsal

Process of repeatedly verbalizing, thinking, or acting on or transforming info in order to keep info active

Maintenance reheasal

Repetitive review of info with little or no interpreation

Elabortive reheasal

Rehearsal involving repitition and analysis which a stimulus may be associated with other info and further proccessed

consolidation

Transformation of a temporary neural circuit into a more permaneant circuit

Plasticity

Brains change every day to allow us to store new info in permanent form

Working memory

Storage mechanism that temp holds current or recent info for immediate or short term

Short term

Lasts short, less than a minute, briefly

Long term

Storage mechanism that keeps relativiley permanent record of info

Procedural

memory for SKILLS, including motor and cognitive required to complete tasks

Declarative memory

Memory for specific info-divided into episodic and semantic

Episodic

Memory for specific personal events/situations, based on time. What you did last weekend

Semantic memory

Memory for ideas, rules, words, and gen conceptions of world. Remembering presidents name

Explicit

Conscious memory we are aware of. Remembering the defintion for a word on test. Declarative-episodic and semantic

Implicit

Memory a person is unaware of. Procedural-habits/skills, How to brush teeth, or ride bike

hippocampus

brain structure in middle of temporal lobes. important for memory

long term potentiaion

Increase in responsivness of a neuron after it has been stimulated

retrieval

Process in which stored info is recovered from memory

Recall

Method of measuring memory in which participants have to retrieve previously preseneted info by reproducing it

Recognition

Measuring memory in participants who select prevciously presented info from other unfamilair info

Relearning

Assessing memory by measuring how long it takes to relearn material previously learned

State dependent learning

Recall info learned while reliving a state of emotion etc. bc of a previous similar state

Primary effect

The more accuracte recall of items presented at the beginning of a series-Remembering first words on a list of words rather than middle.

Recency effect

More accurate recall of items presented at end of series-Remembering words listed on end of list rather than beginning of the list

Serial position curve

Bow shaped curve-represents probability of recall as function of an items position in a list of presented items.

Restorff efect

Word differs in list compared to others-One verb in all nouns-learned more easily

Imagery

Creation or recreation o0f metal picture of a sensory or perceptual experience. Ex-which is darker green...Christmas tree or a pea?

Flashbulb memory

Detailed memory for circumstances at the time of dramatic event-remembing where u were, thoughts, details when 9/11 occured

Schema

Conceptual framework that organizes info and allows a person to make sense of the world

Leveling

Shortening and simplifying details

Sharpening

Focusing on certain details

Assimilation

Altering facts to make stories fit your own personal views of the world

Decay

loss of info from memory as a result of disuse and passing of time

Interference

Suppression of one bit of info by another that is recieved early or later or confusion caused by input of more than one piece of info.

Encoding failure

Memory failure needed for encoding problems

Proactive interference

Decrease in accurate recall of info bc of the effects of previously learned or presented info. AKA- Proactive inhibition. Studying french before spanish

Retroactive interference

Decrease in accurate recall of info bc of subsequent presentation of different info. Studying spanish after french

Repression

Burying of traumatic events in unconscious where they remain inaccessible to conscious memory

Amnesia

Inability to remember info because of trauma

Retrograde amnesia

Inability to remember events and experiences bc of blow to head or something causing brain damage

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to remember events and experiences that occur after brain damage

Cognitive Pscyh

Study of related phenomenon of perception, learning, memory, and thought with emphasis on how people attend to, acquire, transform, store, and retrieve knowledge

Concepts

Mental category people use to classify events or objects according to their common properties or features

concept formation

examination of the way people classify events and objects in order to solve problems

classification

organizing things into categories

Prototype

Abstraction or pattern of object or idea that is stored in memory and used to decide if similar objects or ideas are members of the same class of items

Problem solving

Behavior of individuals when confronted with task that requires insight or determination of some unknown elements

Algorithm

Procedure for solving a problem by implementing a set of rules over and over again until solution is found

Cognitive Psychology

Study of related phenomena of perception, learning, memory, and thought. Focuses on how people attend to, acquire, transform, store, and retrieve info.

Heuristics

Set of strategies that serve as flexible guidelines for problem solving. Like making educated guess or estimation

Subgoal analysis

Heuristic procedure. Problem is broken down. Ex-Creating outline, then paragraphs, then paper

Means-end analysis

Heuristic procedure. Comparing current situation with desired situation to determine most efficeient way to achieve it.

Backward search

Heuristic procedure. Working backwards from goal to current, reducing steps needed to get to goal.

Functional fixedness

not able to see that one object can have fubnction other than its usual function.-Bobby pin picks a lock-takes place of key

Mental set

Limited thinking. Approaching situations same way if it worked in the past.

Creativity

Generate or recognize ideas that are original and appropriate.

Convergent thinking

Narrowing down choices to arrive at solution

Divergent thinking

Widening range of possibilites for solutions

Reasoning

Person generates logical and cogerent ideas, evaluates situations, and reaches conclusion

Logic

Reasoing that is used to reach conclusion

Decision making

Assessing and choosing among options

Gamblers fallacy

Believing something will occur if it hasn't occured recently

Belief in small numbers

Drawing conclusions from small sample assuming it represents large population

Availability Heuristic

Assuming something will happen by how easy it is to think of an example. Flying-plane crash

Overconfidence phenomenon

Being commited to your beliefs with belief that they are right. Believing youll be accepted to school and thend ont

Confirmation bias

People discount info that does not fit with their views

Belief perseverance

Deciding to believe in something and keep accepting it as true even if its not

Artificial intelligence

Computer science concerned with making device or machine to behave like human

Information processing approach

Model of human memory that proposes info is proccessed and stored in three stages

Pragmatics

Study of how social context in which words are used effects meaning

language

system of symbols, usually words. Convey meaning with set of rules for combining symbols to generate messages, sentences

androgyny

Behavior that incorporates qualities traditionally considered masculine, and feminine

Linguistics

Study of language, including speech sounds, meaning and grammar

Psycholinguistics

Study of how language is acquired, percieved, understood

Phonology

Study of patterns and distribution of speechsounds in language and commonly accepted rules of pronunciation

Phoneme

basic unit of sound that combines with others to compose words in a language

Morpheme

Basic unit of meaning in language

Lexicon

Entire set of morpheme in language or invdivual

Semantics

Analysis of language, relationship among them and meaning within context

Telegraphic speech

Form of speech used by children, often consists of verbs and nouns in order that makes sense

Syntax

The way words and groups of words can be combined to form phrases, sentences

Grammar

Linguistic description of how language funtions, like rules and patterns used for appropate sentences

laterALIZATION

localization of particular brain function in one hemisphere