Conditioning
Systematic procedure which associations and responses to specific stimuli are learned
Reflex
Auto behavior occurs involuntary in response to stimulus with no prior learning. Shows little variablity from one occurence to another
Classical Conditioning
AKA-Pavlovian Conditioning. Process in which originally neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that naturally creates a response. Dog begins to relate bell sound to food
Unconditioned stimulus
Stimulus that normally produces involuntary response. Food in dog experiment
Unconditioned response
Unlearned or involuntary respsonse to an unconditioned stimulus. Dog slobber to food
Conditioned stimulus
Neutral stimulus that through repeated association with unconditioned stimulus begins to show a conditioned response.
Conditioned response
Response achieved by conditioned stimulus
Startled response
Babies outstretch arms, legs, change in heart rate, blood pressure, etc
Higher order conditioning
Process which a neutral stimulus takes on conditioned properties through pairing with a conditioned stimulus. Pairing light with bell sound for food
Key variables for classical conditioning
Strength, timing, frequency. Strong stimulus-Stronger response. Timing-Bell ringing right before food. Frequency-Increases pairing when constant
Predicability
Likelihood that occurence of unconditioned stimulus can be anticipated
Extinction
Classical conditioning-procedure withholding unconditioned stimulus and presenting conditiong stimulus alone. Reduces conditioned response
Spontaneous recovery
Recurrence of extinguished condtioned response. Usually follows resting period
Stimulus generalization
Process by which conditioned response is associationed with stimlus that is similar but not identical to oriniginal conditioned stimulus. Dog salivates to high pitch and also low pitch
Stimlus discrimination
Organism learns to respond only to specific stimulus and not to similiar ones. Dog salivates only in repsonse to bright lights, not low lights
Conditioned taste aversion
Relating food that made you sick with nausea
Operant conditioning
increase or decrease in probability that a behavior will recur is affected by reinforcement or punishment. Conditioned respsonse is voluntary, and consequence follows
reinforcer
any event that increases the probability of a recurrence of the response that preceded it. Working hard to get higher pay
Positive reinforcement
Presentation of stimulus after a response in order to increase liklihood that the response will recur-Rewarding dog treat for trick
Negative reinforcement
Removal of unpleasant stimulus after response to increase likelihood of response to recur. Taking med for pain, response is taking meds
Primary reinforcer
reinforcer that has survival value (food, water) for an organism
Secondary reinforcer
Neutral stimulus that initally has no value but becomes rewarding when linked with primary reinforcer (Cars, Money)
Skinner Box
Developed by BF Skinner. Box containing a responding mechanism and device capable of delivering consequence to an animal in the box because of desired response
Shaping
Selective reinforcement of behaviors that gradually come closer to desired respsonse
Punishment
Presenting undesirable stimulus or removing desired stimulus to decrease probability that a preceding repsonse will occur.
Positive Punishment
Adding something unpleasant to a situation. Decreases an unwanted behavior
Negative punishment
Removal of pleasant stimulus. Taking away car if out past curfew
Primary Punisher
Stimulus that is naturally painful or unpleasant-Spanking
Secondary Punisher
Neutral stimulus that has no negative value but acquires punishing when linked with primary punishment. -Angry expression
Learned helplessness
Reaction of a person that feels poweless to control punishment and stops making any responses.
Key variables of operant conditioning
Strength, time, frequency.
Sched of reinforcement
Pattern of presentation of reinforcer over time
Fixed interval sched
Sched of reinforcement in which reinforcer (reward) is delivered after specified interval of time, provided that the repsonse occurs at least once in interval-Response rate drops but increases near end of interval
Variable interval sched
Reinforcer is delivered after predetermined but varying amounts of time, given that response occurs at least one after each interval-Response is slow and regular
Fixed ratio interval
Reinforcer is delivered after specified number of responses has occured-Response is fast and regular
Variable ratio interval
reinforcer is delivered after predetermined but variable amounts of respsonses has occured-Response is regular and high
Extinction in operant
process by which probability of response is reduced when reinforcement no longer follows the respsonse
Social learning theory
banduras theory that suggest organisms learn new responses by observing behavior of a model, then imitatiing it. AKA-Observational learning theory
Modeling
Process critical to observation learning. Observer matches behavior with model
Insight
Finding a solution to problem by thinking about it in a new way
Latent learning
Occurs in absense of direct reinforcement and is not necassarily demonstrated through observable behavior
Cognitive maps
Mental representation that enable people to navigate from starting point to unseen destination
Memory
Ability to recall past events, images, prev learned info. Storage system that allows rentention and retrieval of previously learned info
Encoding
Organizing of sensory info so the nervous system can process it
Levels of proccessing approach
Theory of memory that the brain encodes and processes info in different ways, extent, and levels
Transfer appropriate processing
Processing of info that is similar for both encoding and retrieval of the info
Encoding specificity principle
Principle that the effectiveness of specific retrieval cue depends on how well it matches with orginally encoded info
Storage
Process of maintaining or keeping info readily available as well as locations-also known as memory stores
Sensory Memory
mechanism that performs inital encoding of sensory stimuli and provides brief storage of them- aka-sensory register
Memory Span
Number of items a person can produce from short term memory, usually consists of one or two chunks
Chunks
Manageable and meaningful units of info organized in familiar way for easy encoding, storage, and retrieval
Rehearsal
Process of repeatedly verbalizing, thinking, or acting on or transforming info in order to keep info active
Maintenance reheasal
Repetitive review of info with little or no interpreation
Elabortive reheasal
Rehearsal involving repitition and analysis which a stimulus may be associated with other info and further proccessed
consolidation
Transformation of a temporary neural circuit into a more permaneant circuit
Plasticity
Brains change every day to allow us to store new info in permanent form
Working memory
Storage mechanism that temp holds current or recent info for immediate or short term
Short term
Lasts short, less than a minute, briefly
Long term
Storage mechanism that keeps relativiley permanent record of info
Procedural
memory for SKILLS, including motor and cognitive required to complete tasks
Declarative memory
Memory for specific info-divided into episodic and semantic
Episodic
Memory for specific personal events/situations, based on time. What you did last weekend
Semantic memory
Memory for ideas, rules, words, and gen conceptions of world. Remembering presidents name
Explicit
Conscious memory we are aware of. Remembering the defintion for a word on test. Declarative-episodic and semantic
Implicit
Memory a person is unaware of. Procedural-habits/skills, How to brush teeth, or ride bike
hippocampus
brain structure in middle of temporal lobes. important for memory
long term potentiaion
Increase in responsivness of a neuron after it has been stimulated
retrieval
Process in which stored info is recovered from memory
Recall
Method of measuring memory in which participants have to retrieve previously preseneted info by reproducing it
Recognition
Measuring memory in participants who select prevciously presented info from other unfamilair info
Relearning
Assessing memory by measuring how long it takes to relearn material previously learned
State dependent learning
Recall info learned while reliving a state of emotion etc. bc of a previous similar state
Primary effect
The more accuracte recall of items presented at the beginning of a series-Remembering first words on a list of words rather than middle.
Recency effect
More accurate recall of items presented at end of series-Remembering words listed on end of list rather than beginning of the list
Serial position curve
Bow shaped curve-represents probability of recall as function of an items position in a list of presented items.
Restorff efect
Word differs in list compared to others-One verb in all nouns-learned more easily
Imagery
Creation or recreation o0f metal picture of a sensory or perceptual experience. Ex-which is darker green...Christmas tree or a pea?
Flashbulb memory
Detailed memory for circumstances at the time of dramatic event-remembing where u were, thoughts, details when 9/11 occured
Schema
Conceptual framework that organizes info and allows a person to make sense of the world
Leveling
Shortening and simplifying details
Sharpening
Focusing on certain details
Assimilation
Altering facts to make stories fit your own personal views of the world
Decay
loss of info from memory as a result of disuse and passing of time
Interference
Suppression of one bit of info by another that is recieved early or later or confusion caused by input of more than one piece of info.
Encoding failure
Memory failure needed for encoding problems
Proactive interference
Decrease in accurate recall of info bc of the effects of previously learned or presented info. AKA- Proactive inhibition. Studying french before spanish
Retroactive interference
Decrease in accurate recall of info bc of subsequent presentation of different info. Studying spanish after french
Repression
Burying of traumatic events in unconscious where they remain inaccessible to conscious memory
Amnesia
Inability to remember info because of trauma
Retrograde amnesia
Inability to remember events and experiences bc of blow to head or something causing brain damage
Anterograde amnesia
Inability to remember events and experiences that occur after brain damage
Cognitive Pscyh
Study of related phenomenon of perception, learning, memory, and thought with emphasis on how people attend to, acquire, transform, store, and retrieve knowledge
Concepts
Mental category people use to classify events or objects according to their common properties or features
concept formation
examination of the way people classify events and objects in order to solve problems
classification
organizing things into categories
Prototype
Abstraction or pattern of object or idea that is stored in memory and used to decide if similar objects or ideas are members of the same class of items
Problem solving
Behavior of individuals when confronted with task that requires insight or determination of some unknown elements
Algorithm
Procedure for solving a problem by implementing a set of rules over and over again until solution is found
Cognitive Psychology
Study of related phenomena of perception, learning, memory, and thought. Focuses on how people attend to, acquire, transform, store, and retrieve info.
Heuristics
Set of strategies that serve as flexible guidelines for problem solving. Like making educated guess or estimation
Subgoal analysis
Heuristic procedure. Problem is broken down. Ex-Creating outline, then paragraphs, then paper
Means-end analysis
Heuristic procedure. Comparing current situation with desired situation to determine most efficeient way to achieve it.
Backward search
Heuristic procedure. Working backwards from goal to current, reducing steps needed to get to goal.
Functional fixedness
not able to see that one object can have fubnction other than its usual function.-Bobby pin picks a lock-takes place of key
Mental set
Limited thinking. Approaching situations same way if it worked in the past.
Creativity
Generate or recognize ideas that are original and appropriate.
Convergent thinking
Narrowing down choices to arrive at solution
Divergent thinking
Widening range of possibilites for solutions
Reasoning
Person generates logical and cogerent ideas, evaluates situations, and reaches conclusion
Logic
Reasoing that is used to reach conclusion
Decision making
Assessing and choosing among options
Gamblers fallacy
Believing something will occur if it hasn't occured recently
Belief in small numbers
Drawing conclusions from small sample assuming it represents large population
Availability Heuristic
Assuming something will happen by how easy it is to think of an example. Flying-plane crash
Overconfidence phenomenon
Being commited to your beliefs with belief that they are right. Believing youll be accepted to school and thend ont
Confirmation bias
People discount info that does not fit with their views
Belief perseverance
Deciding to believe in something and keep accepting it as true even if its not
Artificial intelligence
Computer science concerned with making device or machine to behave like human
Information processing approach
Model of human memory that proposes info is proccessed and stored in three stages
Pragmatics
Study of how social context in which words are used effects meaning
language
system of symbols, usually words. Convey meaning with set of rules for combining symbols to generate messages, sentences
androgyny
Behavior that incorporates qualities traditionally considered masculine, and feminine
Linguistics
Study of language, including speech sounds, meaning and grammar
Psycholinguistics
Study of how language is acquired, percieved, understood
Phonology
Study of patterns and distribution of speechsounds in language and commonly accepted rules of pronunciation
Phoneme
basic unit of sound that combines with others to compose words in a language
Morpheme
Basic unit of meaning in language
Lexicon
Entire set of morpheme in language or invdivual
Semantics
Analysis of language, relationship among them and meaning within context
Telegraphic speech
Form of speech used by children, often consists of verbs and nouns in order that makes sense
Syntax
The way words and groups of words can be combined to form phrases, sentences
Grammar
Linguistic description of how language funtions, like rules and patterns used for appropate sentences
laterALIZATION
localization of particular brain function in one hemisphere