psychology
the scientific study of mind and behavior
mind
our private inner experience of perceptions, thoughts, memories, and feelings
behavior
observable actions of human beings and nonhuman animals
nativism
the philosophical view that certain kinds of knowledge is acquired through experience
phrenology
a now defunct theory that specific mental abilities and characteristics, ranging from memory ot the capacity for happiness, are localized in specific regions of the brain
physiology
the study of biological processes, especially in the human body
stimulus
sensory input from the environment
reaction time
the amount of time taken to respond to a specific stimulus
consciousness
a person's subjective experience of the world and the mind
structuralism
the analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind
introspection
the subjective observation of one's own experience
functionalism
the study of the purpose mental processes serve in enabling peope to adapt to their environment
natural selection
Charles Darwin's theory that the features of an organism that help it survive and reproduce are more likely than other features to be passed on to subsequent generations
illusions
errors of perception, memory, or judgement in which subjective experience differs from objective reality.
Gestalt psychology
a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of parts
hysteria
a temporary loss of cognitive or motor functions, usualy as a result of emotionally upsetting experiences
unconscious
the part of the miind that operates outside of conscious awareness bu influences conscious thoughts, feelings, and actions
psychoanalytic theory
Sigmund Freud's approach to understanding human behavior that emphasizes the importance of unconsious mental processes in shaping feelings, thoughts, and behaviors
psychoanalysis
a therapeutic approach that focuses on bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness to better understand psychological disorders
humanistic psychology
an approach to understanding human nature that emphasizes the positive potential of human beings
behaviorism
an approach that advocates that psychologists restrict themselves to the scientific study of objectively observable behavior
response
an action or physiological change elicited by a stimulus
reinforcement
the consequences of a behavior that determine whether it will be more likely that the behavior will occur again
cognitive psychology
the scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning
behavioral neuroscience
an approach to psychology that links psychological processes to activities in the nervous system and other bodily processes
cognitive neuroscience
a field that attempts to understand te links between cognitive processes and brain activity
evolutionary psychology
a psychological approach that explains mind and behavior in terms of the adaptive value of abilities that are preserved over time by natural selection
social psychology
a subfield of psychology that studies the causes and consequences of interpersonal behavior
cultural psychology
the study of how cultures reflect and shape the psychological processes of their members
empiricism
origianlly a Greek school of medicine that stressed the importance of observation, and now generally used to describe any attempt to acquire knowledge by observing objects or events
method
a set of rules and techniques for observation that allow researchers to avoid the illusions, mistakes and erroneous conclusions that simple observation can produce
operational definition
a description of an abstract property in terms of a concrete condition that can be measured
measure
a device that can detect the measurable events to which an operational definition refers
electromyograph (EMG)
a device that measures muscle contractions under the surface of a person's skin
validity
the characteristic of an observation that allows one to draw accurate inferences from it
reliability
the tendency for a measure to produce the same result whenever it is used to measure the same thing
power
the tendency for a measure to produce different results when it is used to measure different things
case method
a method of gathering scientific knowledge by studying a single individual
population
the complete collection of participants who might possibly be measured
sample
the partial collection of people who actually were measured in a study
demand characteristics
those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to bhave as they think an observer wants or expects them to behave
naturalistic observation
a method of gahtering scientific knowledge by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments
double-blind observation
an observation whose true purpose is hidden from the researcher as well as from the participant
correlation
the "co-relationship" or patern of covariation between two variables, each of which has been measured several times
variable
a property whose value can vary or change
third-variable correlation
the fact that two variables may be correlated only because they are both caused by a third variable
matched samples
an observational technique that involves matching the average of the participants in the experimental and control groups in order to eliminate the possibility that a third variable (and not the independent variable) caused changes in the dependent variabl
matched pairs
an observational technique that involves matching each participant in the exxperimental group with a specific participant in the control group in order to eliminate the possibility that a third variable (and not the independent varibale) caused changes in
third-variable problem
the fact that the causal relationship between two variables cannot be inferred from the correlation between them because of the ever-present possibility of third-variable correlation
experiment
a tecchnique for establishing the causal relationship between variables
independent variable
the variable that is manipulated in an experiment
experimental gorup
one of the two groups of participants created by the manipulation of an independent variable in an experiment: the experimental group is exposed to the stimulus being studied and the control group is not
control gorup
one of the two groups of participants created by the manipulation of an independent variable in an experiment that is not exposed to the stimulus being studied
dependent variable
the variable that is measured in a study
internal validity
the characteristic of an experiment that allows one to draw accurate inferences about the causal relationship between an independent and dependent variable
external validity
a characteristic of an experiment in which the independent and dependent variables are operationally defined in a normal, typical, or realistic way
theory
a hypothetical account of how and why a phenomenon occurs, usually in the form of a statement about the causal relationsip between tow or more properties. Theories lead to hypotheses
hypothesis
a specific and testable prediction that is usuallly derived from a theory
random sampling
a technique for choosing participants that ensures tat every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample
informed consent
a written agreement to participate in a study made by a person who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail
debriefing
a verbal description of the ture nature an dpurpose of a study that psychologists provide to people after they have participated in the study
developmental psychology
the study of continuity and change across the life span
zygote
a single cell that ocntains chromosmes form both a sperm and an egg
germinal stage
the 2-week period of prenatal development that begins at conception
embryonic stage
the period of prenatal development that lasts from the second week until about the eighth week
fetal stage
the period of prenatal development that lasts from the ninth week until birth
myelination
the formation of a fatty sheath around the axons of a brain cell
teratogens
agents that damage the process of development, such as drugs and viruses
fetal alcohol syndrome
a developmental disorder that stems from heavy alcohol use by the mother during pregnancy
infancy
the stage of development that begins at birth and lasts between 18 and 24 months
motor development
the emergence of the ability to execute physical action
reflexes
specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation
cephalocaudal rule
the "top-to-bottom" rule that describes teh tendency fr motor skills to emerge in sequence from the center to the periphery
cognitive development
the emergence of the ability to understand the world
sensorimotor stage
a stage of development that begins at birth and lasts through infancy in which infants acquire information about the world by sensing it and moving around within it
schemas
theories about or models of the way the world works
assimilation
the process by which infants aply their schemas in novel situations
accommodation
the process by which infants revise their schemas in light of new information
object permanence
the idea that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible
childhood
the stage of development that begins at about 18 to 24 months and lasts until adolescence
preoperational stage
the stage of development that begins at about 2 years and ends at about 6 years, in which children ahve a preliminary understanding of the physical world
concrete operational stage
the stage of development that begins at about 6 years and ends at aobut 11 years, in which children acquire a basic understanding of the physical world and a preliminary understanding of their own and others' mind
conservation
the notion that the quantiatvie properties of an object are invariant despite changes in the object's appearance
formal operational stage
the stage of development that begins around the age of 11 and lasts through adulthood, in which children gain a deeper understanding of their own and others' minds and learn to reason abstractly
egocentrism
the failure to understnad that the world appears differently to different observers
theory of mind
the idea that human behavior is guided by mental representation, which gives rise to the realization that the world is not always the way it looks and that different people see it differently
attachment
the emotional bond that forms between newborns and their primary caregivers
internal working model of attachment
a set of expectations about how the primary caregiver will respond when the child feels insecure
temperaments
characteristic patterns of emotional reactivity
preconventinal stage
a stage of moral development in which the morality of an action is primarily determined by its consequences for the actor
conventional stage
a stage of moral development in which the morality of an action is primarily determined by the extent to which it conforms to social rules
postconventional stage
a stage of moral development at which the morality of an action is determined by a set of general principles that reflect core values
adolescence
the period of development that begins with the onset of sexual maturity (about 11 to 14 years of age) and lasts until the beginning of adulthood (about 18 to 21 years of age)
puberty
the bodily changes associated with sexual maturity
primary sex characteeristics
bodily structures that are directly involved in reproduction
secondary sex characteristics
bodily structures that change dramatically with sexual maturity but that are not directly involved in reproduction
adulthood
the stage of development that begins around 18 to 21 years and ends at death