Learning
Relatively permanent change in behavior the occurs through experience.
Associative Learning
learning that occurs when a connection is made between two events or stimuli. hints-ASS the two s's have a connection
Cognitive Learning
higher level learning that involves thinking, knowing, understanding and anticipation hint- think of what cognitive means
Operant Conditioning
form of learning based on consequences of responding
Classical Conditioning
form of learning in which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli
Ivan Pavlov
Russian Psychologists, created classical conditioning through the study of dog's saliva, association between reflexive and unlearned behavior
Unconditioned Stimulus
stimulus innately capable of eliciting a response
Unconditioned Response
innate reflex response elicited by and unconditional stimulus
Neutral Stimulus
stimulus that does not evoke a response
Conditioning
the process of learning associations
Conditioned Stimulus
a stimulus that evokes a response because it has repeatedly been paired with an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned Response
a learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus
Acquisition
the period of conditioning during which a response is reinforced
Extinction
the weakening of the conditioned response in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus or reinforcement
Spontaneous Recovery
the reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction
Stimulus Generalization
the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to, but not identical to a continued stimulus
Stimulus Discrimination
the learned ability to respond differently to different stimuli
Operant Conditioning
a form of learning based on the consequences of responding
Edward Thorndike
pioneer learning theorists, the basic principal is simple: acts that are reinforced tend to be repeated, he called this law of effect, the probability of a response is altered by the effect it has
Thorndike's Law
If a behavior is followed by a reward it will increase the probability that the behavior will occur again. If a behavior is not followed by a reward it will decrease the probability that the behavior will occur again. That is, behavior is determined by it
Behaviorism
a theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behavior or what we do
B.F. Skinner
went to harvard, operant conditioning
ABC Law
Antecedents, Behavior, Consequences
Antecedents
persons, places, things, or events occurring before that encourage a person to preform the behavior
Behavior
any behavior (ABC LAW)
Consequences
events that follow behavior and change the probability that the behavior will occur again
Categories of Confidence
positive or negative P/N Immediate or in the future I/F Certain or uncertain C/U
Shaping
gradually molding responses to a final desired pattern by rewarding approximations of desired behavior
Positive Reinforcement
behavior increases because it is followed by a reward or other positive events
Negative Reinforcement
behavior increases because it is followed by an end to discomfort or the removal of an unpleasant event
Positive Punishment
the response or behavior decreases when it is followed by and unpleasant event
Response Cost
behavior decreases because with the removal of a positive reinforcer after a response or behavior
Limitations of Punishment
punishment decreases the existing behavior, but it can't be used to establish new, desired behaviors.... excessive punishment (especially physical) can increase aggression in children
Schedules of Reinforcement
timetables that determine when a behavior will be reinforced
Continuous Reinforcement
pattern of reinforcement where every response rewarded
Partial Reinforcement
pattern of reinforcement in which only a portion of all responses are reinforced
Fixed Ratio
reinforces behavior after a set number of correct responses or behaviors
Fixed Interval
reinforces behavior only when a correct response is made after a set amount of time has passed since the last reinforced response or behavior
Variable Ratio
a varied number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer
Variable Interval
behavior is reinforced after a varied amount of time has passed since the lat reinforced response
Operant Stimulus Generalization
giving the same response to similar stimuli
Operant Stimulus Discrimination
responding to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced
Extinction
occurs when a preciously reinforced behavior in no longer reinforced and there is a decreased tendency to preform the behavior
Observational Learning
Learning that occurs when a person watches and imitates the actions of another person and/or notes the consequences of those actions
Process of Observational Learning
ARMR Attention, Retention, Motor Reproduction, Reinforcement
Cognitive Learning
making use of information- rich higher mental processes- understanding, knowing, anticipating
Cognitive Maps
internal images or mental representations of an area that underlie an ability to choose alternative paths to reach a goal
Latent Learning
learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and that remains unexpressed until reinforcement is provided
Insight Learning
problem solving in which there is sudden insight into or understanding of the problem's full solution
Memory
the mental system for receiving, encoding, storing, organizing, altering, and retrieving info
Domains of Memory
encoding, storage, retrieval
Encoding
getting info into the memory
Storage
retaining info over time
Retrieval
taking info out of storage
Selective Attention
focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others
Divided Attention
attending to several things simultaneously
Levels of Processing
Shallow (sensory or physical features are analyzed) intermediate (occurs when a stimulus is recognized and labeled) deep (occurs when you process info semantically or you give it meaning)
Elaboration
the extensiveness of processing any given level of memory
Imagery
memory for images is better than for words because images are stored as both an image code and verbal code
Stages of Memory Storage
sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory
Sensory Memory
holds info from the world in it's original form, time frame: a fraction of a second to several seconds, rich and detailed but very quickly lost
Iconic Memory
form visual sensory memory
Echoic Memory
from auditory sensory memory
Short-Term Memory
stores small amount of info time frame is up to 30 seconds
Memory Span
the number of digits an individual can report back in order after a single presentation of them (7+ or -2)
Chunking
information bits grouped into larger units
Rehearsal
silently repeating or mentally reviewing info to hold in the short term memory
Working Memory
briefly holds info needed when we are thinking or solving problems
Long-Term Memory
the memory system used for relatively permanent type of storage of meaningful info
Declarative (Explicit) Memory
conscious recollections of info such as specific factual info
Episodic Memory
personal experiences linked to specific times and places
Semantic Memory
memories of impersonal knowledge about the world
Non-declarative (Implicit) Memory
memories that we do not necessarily know exist. A memory that is retrieved unconsciously
Procedural Memory
memory of conditioned responses and learned skills
Memory Retrieval
taking memories out of storage
Serial Position Effect
the tendency to recall items at the beginning and the end of a list
Recognition
the ability to correctly identify previously learned info
Encoding Failure
a failure to store sufficient info to form a useful memory
Interference
the tendency for new memories to impair retrieval of older memories, and the reverse
Proactive
tendency for old memory to interfere with the retrieval of new memory
Retroactive
the tendency for new learning to inhibit retrieval of old learning
Decay
the disintegration of neurochemical memory traces that form during learning
Disuse
memory traces weaken when memories are not periodically used or retrieved
Cue-Dependent Forgetting
one reason retrieval may fail is because memory cues are missing when the time comes to retrieve info
Memory Cue
a stimulus associated with a particular memory
Encoding Specificity Principal
info present at the time of encoding or learning tends to be effective as a memory cue
Context Dependent Memory
we remember better when we attempt to recall info in the same context in which we learned it
State Dependent Memory
we remember info better when our psychological state or mood is similar at encoding and retrieval
Repression
unconsciously pushing unwanted memories our of awareness
Suppression
a conscious effort to put something out of mind or to keep it from awareness
Intelligence
the capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment
General Mental Abilities (g-force)
core of intelligence is usually thought to consists of this small set, in the ares of reasoning, problem solving, knowledge, memory, and successful adaptation, to one's surroundings
Multiple Factor Theory of Intelligence
theory that intelligence consists of 7 primary mental abilities; ,verbal comprehension, number ability, word fluency, spatial visualization, associative memory, reasoning, perceptual speed
Sternburg's Triarchic Theory
intelligence is how well an individual deals with environmental changes throughout their lifespan. Sternberg's theory comprises three parts: analytical, creative, and practical
Gardner's Theory of Intelligence
eight intelligences from verbal intelligence to naturalist intelligence; verbal skills, mathematical skills, spatial skills, bodily-kinesthetic skills, musical skills, interpersonal skills, intrapersonal skills, naturalist skills
Heritability
the fraction of the variance in IQ in a population that is attributed to genetics
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
Mental Age over Chronological age times 100 MA/CAx100
IQ of 100 is average
Normal Distribution
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve characterized by a large number of scores in a middle area, tampering to very few extremely high or low scores
Binet- Simon Scale
??
Stanford- Binet Intelligence Scale
Fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual- spatial processing, working memory
Wechsler's Scale
6 verbal measures and 5 non verbal measures, created first "adult" intelligence test, his tests gave separate scores for performance(nonverbal) and verbal intelligence
Validity
the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure
Reliability
the extent to which a tests yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance
Standardization
involves developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test, as well as creating norms for the test
Culture- fair testing
intelligence test designed to minimize the importance of skills and knowledge that may be more common in some cultures than others
Use & Misuse of Intelligence Tests
often thought of as fixed, unchanging indicator of an individual's intelligence. leads to stereotypes and expectations about an individual
Cognition
the process of thinking or mentally processing info
Thinking
manipulating info
Mental Images
a mental representation that has picture- like qualities; an icon
Concepts
mental categories that are used to group objects, events, and characteristics
Conjunctive Concepts
or "and concepts" are defined by the presence of two or more features. In other words, an item must have "this feature AND this feature AND this feature
Relational Concepts
how an object relates to something else, or how its features relate to one another. all of the following are relational concepts; larger, above, left, north, and upside down
Disjunctive Concepts
have AT LEAST ONE of several possible features. "either/ or concepts" "this feature OR that feature OR another feature
Classical Model of Concepts
all instances of a concept share defining properties.
Prototype Model of Concepts
ideal model used as a prime example of a particular concept
Semantics
study of meaning in words and language
Context
words get much of their meaning from the words around them
Structures of Language
a language must provide symbols that stand for objects and ideas. the symbols we call words are built out of phonemes(basic speech sounds) and morphemes(speech sounds collected into meaningful units, such as syllables or words). next the language must hav
Problem Solving
an attempt to find an appropriate way of attaining a goal when the goal is not readily available
Mechanical Solution
used for routine problems, achieved by trial and error or by rote
Algorithms
learned set of rules that always leads to a correct solution.
Heuristics
a strategy for identifying and evaluating problem solutions
Expertise
knowledge base, domain memory, strategies, and deliberate practice
Insight
a thinker who has suddenly solved a problem has experienced this, in other words a sudden mental reorganization of a problem that makes the solution obvious
Fixation
tendency to repeat wrong solutions or faulty responses, especially as a result of becoming blind to alternatives
Functional Fixedness
a rigidity in a problem solving caused by an instability to see new uses for a familiar object
Emotional Barriers
inhibition and fear of making a fool of oneself, fear of making a mistake, inability to tolerate ambiguity, excessive self- criticism
Cultural Barriers
values that hold that fantasy is a waste of time; that playfulness is for children only; that reason, logic, and numbers are good; that feelings, intuitions, pleasures, and humor are bad or have no value
Learned Barriers
conventions about uses (functional fixedness), meanings, possibilities, taboos
Perceptual Barriers
habits leading to failure to identify important elements of a problem
Creative Thinking
inductive vs. deductive thought, fluency, flexibility, originality, convergent vs. divergent thinking
Inductive Thought
thinking in which a general rule or principle is gather from a series of specific examples
Deductive Thought
thought that applies a general set of rules to specific solutions
Fluency
in tests of creativity, this refers to the total number of solutions produced
Flexibility
in tests of creativity, this is indicated by the number of different types of solutions produced
Originality
in tests of creativity, this refers to how novel or unusual solutions are
Convergent Thinking
thinking directed toward discovery of a single established correct answer
Divergent Thinking
thinking that produced many ideas or alternatives
Intuition
quick an impulsive thought that does not make use of formal logic or clear reasoning
Representative Heuristic
a tendency to select wrong answers because they seem to match pre-exsisting mental categories
Hot Cognition
emotions can cloud clear thinking; our emotional reactions to various alternatives can determine what intuitively seems to be the right answer
Underlying Odds
common error in judgement involves ignoring the base rate, or underlying probability, of an event
Fault Framing
in thought, the terms in which a problem is stated or the way this it is structured
Motivation
internal processes that initiate, sustain, direct, and terminate activities
Need
a internal deficiency that may energize behavior
Drive
the psychological expression of internal needs or valued goals
Response
any action, glandular behavior or identifiable behavior
Goal
the target or objective of a motivated behavior
Biological Motivation
innate motives based on biological needs that must be met for survival. most important are hunger, thirst, needs for air, sleep, elimination of waste etc.
Drive Reduction Theory
a drive becomes stronger, we are motivated to reduce it
Homeostasis
standing steady" or "steady state" of body equilibrium
Stimulus Motives
innate needs for stimulation and info. examples: curiosity, exploration, manipulation, and physical contact.
Arousal Theory
people prefer to maintain ideal or comfortable levels of arousal
Yerkes-Dodson Law
performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal, rather than either low or high arousal
Learned Motives
motives based on learned needs, drives, and goals
Social Motives
learned motives acquired as part of growing up in a particular society or culture
Need for Achievement
the desire to excel or to meet some internalized standard of excellence
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
from least to greatest: psychological needs such as air food and water, safety and security, love and belongings, esteem and self-esteem, self actualization
Intrinsic Motivation
motivation that comes from within, rather than from external rewards
Extrinsic Motivation
motivation that is based on obvious external rewards, obligations, or similar factors
Role of the Autonomic Nervous System
??
Wheel Model of Classifying Emotion
??
James-Lange Theory
emotional feelings follow bodily arousal and come from awareness of that arousal
Cannon-Bard Theory
activity in the thalamus causes emotional feelings and bodily arousal to occur simultaneously.
Schachter's Cognitive Theory
emotions occur when physical arousal is labeled or interpreted on the basis of experience and situational cues
Emotional Appraisal
Evaluating the personal meaning of a stimulus or situation
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
Sensations from facial expressions help define what emotion a person feels
Contemporary Model of Emotion
??
Stress
The mental and physical condition that occurs when a person must adjust or adapt to the environment.
Stressor
a specific condition or event in the environment that challenges or threatens a person
Pressure
stressful condition that occurs when a person must meet urgent external demands or expectations
External Frustration
based on conditions outside a person that impede progress toward a goal
Internal Frustration
based on personal characteristics
Frustration
negative emotional state that occurs when one is prevented from reaching a goal
Aggression Hypothesis
Frustration of goal-directed behavior leads to Aggression
Aggression
any response made with the intent of causing harm
Conflict
a stressful condition that occurs when a person must choose between incompatible or contradictory alternatives
Conflict
A stressful condition that occurs when a person must choose between incompatible or contradictory alternatives
(making difficult decisions about 2 or more competing motives, behaviors, or impulses)
Interpersonal Conflict
??
Intrapersonal Conflict
occurs when goals are blocked
Approach-Approach
type of intrapersonal conflict. choosing between two positive or desirable alternatives
Approach-Avoidance
type of intrapersonal conflict. being attracted to and repelled by the same goal or activity
Avoidance-Avoidance
type of intrapersonal conflict. choosing between two negative or undesirable alternatives.
Double Approach-Avoidance
being simultaneously attracted to and repelled by each of two alternatives
Multiple Approach-Avoidance
being simultaneously attracted to and repelled by each of several alternatives