Psychological Science
Study of mind, brain, and behavior
Critical Thinking
Systematically evaluating information to reach reasonable conclusions
Culture
Beliefs, values, rules, norms, and customs within a group of people that share a language and environment
Nature vs. Nurture
Arguments concerning whether psychological characteristics are biologically innate or acquired through education, experience, and culture
Mind vs Body
Are the mind and body separate and distinct or is the mind simply the brain's subjective experience?
Dualism
Descartes said that the mind and body are separate yet intertwined
Monism
mind = brain
Introspection
(Wundt) systematic examination of subjective mental experience that requires people to inspect and report on their thoughts
Wilhelm Wundt
Established the first psychology institute
Structuralism
(Titchener) Idea that conscious experience can be broken down into its underlying components
Edward Titchener
A student of Wundt's that created a school called structuralism
Functionalism
(James) An approach to psychology concerned with the adaptive purpose, or function, of mind and behavior
William James
Was a critic of structuralism and created functionalism
Stream of Consciousness
Mind consists of ever-changing, continuous series of thoughts that can not be frozen in time
Evolutionary Theory
(Darwin) It views the history of a species in terms of the inherited, adaptive value of physical characteristics, of mental activity and behavior
Charles Darwin
Published the idea of the evolutionary theory. Presented the ideas of natural selection and survival of the fittest
Natural Selection
In evolutionary theory, the idea that those who inherit characteristics that help them adapt to their particular environments have a selective advantage over those who do not
Survival of the Fittest
Species that are better adapted to their environments will survive and reproduce, their offspring will survive and reproduce, and so on
Gestalt Theory
(Wertheimer/Kohler) Whole of personal experience is different from simply the sum of its constituent elements
Max Wertheimer
Founded Gestalt School and opposed structuralism
Sigmund Freud
One of the main influences of 20th century psychology; developed psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis
A method that attempts to bring the contents of the unconscious into conscious awareness so that conflicts can be revealed
Free Association
A technique where a patient would talk about whatever for however long he or she wanted
John B. Watson
Developed behaviorism; believed that nature was all
Behaviorism
A psychological approach that emphasizes the role of environmental forces in producing behavior
George A. Miller
Launched the cognitive revolution
Cognitive Psychology
Study of how people think, learn, and remember
Cognitive Neuroscience
The study of the neural mechanisms that underlie though, learning, and memory
Kurt Lewin
Founder of social psychology
Social Psychology
The study of how people are influenced by their interactions with others
Levels of analysis
Biological, Individual, Social, and Cultural
Theory
Explains what is observed and makes predictions about future events
Hypothesis
A scientific prediction of what should be observed if a theory is correct
Population
Everyone in the group the experimenter is interested in
Sample
Subset of population
Representative Sample/Convenience Sample
Taken at random from an available subgroup. Ex. Students walking into school
Three types of psychological studies
Descriptive, Correlational, and Experimental
Descriptive Studies (Observational)
Research method of careful and systematic assessments and coding of overt behavior
Naturalistic Observation
Patients observed in natural behavior
Participant Observation
Patients know they are being observed
Correlational Studies
Examine how variables are related
Directionality Problem
Researchers find a relationship between two variables but do not know which variable caused changes in the other variable
Third Variable Problem
Problem that occurs when researchers can not directly manipulate a variable
Reliability
Stable measure and consistent overtime in different conditions
Accuracy
How far a measure is from the experiments measure
External Validity
The study findings can be generalized beyond the experiment
Internal Validity
Data collected in a study address the research hypothesis in the way intended
Experimenter Expectancy Effect
Actual change in the behavior of the people or nonhuman animals being observed that is due to the expectations of the observer
Reactivity
When the presence of the observer alters the behavior being observed
The Hawthorne Effect
Changes of behavior when people know they are being observed
Longitudinal Studies
Re-assesment of a few people over a long period of time
Cross-sectional Studies
Compares participants in different groups at the same time
Case Studies
Intense examination of unusual people or organizations
Response performance
Researchers quantify perceptual or cognitive processes in response to a specific stimulus
Reaction times
How long it takes the brain to process a stimuli
Mean
Average
Median
Middle
Mode
The most occuring
Central Tendency
Mean, Median, and Mode
Positive Correlation
Both variables go up or down
Negative Correlation
One variables go one way the other goes the other
Inferential Statistics
A set of procedures used to make judgements about whether differences actually exist between sets of numbers
Meta-Analysis
Combines findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion
Anonymity
Identity not revealed
Risk to patients
Risks must be explained and ok'd by a patient
Risk/Benefit Ratio
Whether research is important enough to put risk on people
Central Nervous System
Brain and Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous System
All nerves not part of CNS
Neuron
Basic unit of the brain/nervous system; Communicate via electrical and chemical means
Types of Neurons
Sensory, Motor, and Interneurons
Sensory Neuron
Detect info from the physical world and pass it on to brain
Motor Neuron
Direct muscles to contract/relax, thereby producing movement
Interneurons
Neurons that communicate with just other neurons
Neuronal Communication
Electrical: Within a neuron
Chemical: Between neurons
Terminal Buttons
Small molecules, at the end of axons that release chemical signals from the neuron into synapse
Nodes of Ranvier
Smal gaps of exposed axons between the segment of myelin sheath, where action potentials are transmitted
Resting Potential
The electrical charge of a neuron when it isn't active
Receptors
Nerve cells that detect conditions in the body's environment
Agonist
Drugs that enhance actions of neurotransmitters
Antagonist
Drugs that inhibit actions of neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine
Responsible for motor control of junction between muscles and nerves. Also involves sleeping, learning, dreaming, and memory
Epinephrine
Burst of energy
Norepinephrine
Responsible for arousal and awareness
Serotonin
Emotional states and impulsiveness also dreaming
Dopamine
Motivation and reward; Motor control over voluntary movement
GABA
Inhibition of action potentials; Anxiety reduction; Intoxication through alcohol
Glutamate
Enhancement of action potentials; Learning and memory
Endorphins
Pain reduction and reward
Substance P
Pain perception; mood and anxiety
EEG
Electrical activity in the brain
MRI
A method of brain imaging that produces high-quality images of the brain
PET
Assesses metabolic activity by using a radioactive substance injected into the bloodstream
fMRI
An imaging technique used to examine changes in the activity of the working human brain
TMS
Activating and deactivating the brain
Pons and Medulla
Houses nerves that control the most basic functions of survival
Cerebellum
A large, convoluted protuberance at back of brainstem; movement and balance
Thalamus
Gateway to the brain, receives almost all incoming sensory info before the info reaches the cortex
Hypothalamus
Regulation of bodily functions and influences our basic motivated behaviors
Amygdala
Emotional responses and processing emotional info
Hippocampus
Deals with the memory
Basal Ganglia
Planned Movement
Cerebral Cortex
Outer surface of cerebrum; Contains 33 billion neurons; divided into two hemispheres
Occipital Lobe
Primary visual cortex
Parietal Lobe
Primary somatosensory cortex (Touch)
Temporal Lobe
Primary auditory cortex; fusiform face area
Frontal Lobe
Primary motor cortex; prefrontal cortex
Visual Agnosia
inability to recognize familiar objects
Plasticity
allows brain to change due to experience, drugs, or inquiry
Hemineglect
inability to attend to stimuli from one side of the body
Wernicke's Aphasia
Loss of language comprehension
Broca's Aphasia
Disorder of speech production , problems with emotion, and executive functions
Phineas Gage
Railroad spike through skull...personality change
Phantom Limb
Limb is gone but the body still feels as if it is there
Gamblers Fallacy
When an individual erroneously believes that the onset of a certain random event is less likely to happen following an event or a series of events.
Selective recall
process that occurs when we remember things we want to remember and forget or repress things that are unpleasant, uncomfortable, or unimportant to us