manifest function
intended and recognized consequence of some element of society
symbol
anything that stands for something else and has a shared meaning attached to it
theoretical perspective
general set of assumptions about the nature of phenomena
Social Darwinism
perspective that holds that societies evolved toward stability and perfection
dysfunctional
negative consequence an element has for the stability of the social system
interactionist perspective
theoretical perspective that focuses on how individuals interact with one another in society
economics
sutdy of the choices people make in an effort to satisfy their wants and needs
history
the study of past events
Verstehen
emphatetic understanding of the meanings other attach to their actions
ideal type
description of the essential characteristics of some aspect of society
political science
study of the organization and operation of governments
latent function
unintended and unrecognized consequence of some element of society
functionalist perspective
theoretical perspective that views society as a set of interrelated parts that work together to produce a stable social system
psychology
science that deals with the behavior and thinking of organisms
symbolic interaction
interaction between people that takes place through the use of symbols
function
positive consequence an element of society has for the maintenance of the social system
sociology
social science that studies human society and social behavior
anthropology
comparative study of various aspects of past and present cultures
social phenomena
an observable fact or event that involves the human society
social sciences
related disciplines that study various aspects of human social behavior
conflict perspective
theoretical perspective that focuses on those forces in society that promote competition and change
sociological imagination
ability to see the connection between the larger world and our personal lives
theory
systematic explanation of the relationship among phenomena
social psychology
study of how an individual's behavior and personality are affected by the social environment
social interaction
how people relate to one another and influence each other's behavior
sociological perspective
a viewing of the behavior of groups in a systematic way
mores
norms that have great moral significance attached to them
values
shared beliefs about what is good or bad, right or wrong, desirable or undesirable
society
group of mutually interdependent people who have organized in such a way as to share a common culture and have a feeling of unity
culture patterns
combination of a number of culture complexes into an interrelated whole
nonmaterial culture
abstract human creations, such as language, idea, beliefs, rules, skills
norms
shared rules of conduct that tell people how to act in specific situations
language
organization of written and spoken symbols into a standardized system
culture trait
individual tool, act, or belief that is related to a paticular situation or need
folkways
norms that do not have great moral significance attached to them - the common customs of everyday life
material culture
physical objects created by human groups
culture complexes
clusters of interrelated culture traits
culture
shared products of human groups both physical and worldly
laws
written rules of conduct that are enacted and enforced by the government
technology
knowledge and tools people use for practical purposes
counterculture
group that rejects the values, norms, and practices of the larger society and replaces them with a new set of cultural patterns
cultural relativism
belief that cultures should be judged by their own standards
cultural universals
common features that are found in all human cultures
ethnocentrism
tendency to view one's own culture and group as superior to all other cultures and groups
subculture
group with its own unique values, norms, and behaviors that exists within a larger group
latent function
unintended and unrecognized consequence of some element of society
bourgeoisie
owners of the means of production in a capitalist society
prestige
respect, honor, recognition or couresty an individual receives from other members of society
social stratification
Ranking of individuals or categories of people on the basis of on equal access to scars resources and social rewards
Social inequality
unequal sharing of social reward and resources
Proletariat
Worker in a capitalist society who sell their labor in exchange for wages
Social class
Grouping of people with similar levels of wealth, power, and prestige
Poverty level
minimum annual income needed by a family to survive
Life chances
Likely that individuals have of sharing in the oppurtunities and benefits of society
poverty
standard of living that is below the minimum level considered decent and reasonable by society
Subjective method
technique used to rank individuals according to social in which the individuals themselves are asked to determine their own social rank
life expectancy
average number of years a person born in a particular year can be expected to live
objective method
technique used to rank individuals according to social class in which sociologists define social class in terms of factors such as income, occupation, and education
vertical mobility
Movement between social classes or strata in which the individual moves from one social class level to another
Social mobility
Movement between or within social classes or strata
Intergenerational mobility
form of vertical mobility in which status differs between generations in the same family
horizontal mobility
type of social mobility in which the individual moves from one position in a social class level to another position in the same social class level
reputational method
Technique used to rank individuals according to social class. This is done by asking individuals in the community to rank other community members
Transfer payments
prinicpal way in which the government attempts to reduce social inequality by redestributing money among various segments of society
wealth
most obvious dimension of social stratification because it is made up of the value of everything the person owns and money earned through salary and wages
endogamy
marriage within one's own social category
caste system
system in which scarce resources and rewards are distributed on the basis of ascribed statuses
power
Ability to control the behavior of others with or without their consent
exogamy
Marriage outside of one's own social category
Class system
system in which scarce resources and rewards are determined on the basis of achieved statuses
socioeconomic status
Reading that combines social factors such as level of education, occupational prestige, and place of residence with the economic factor of income in order to determine an individual's relative position in the stratification system
Social integration
Degree of attachments people have to social groups or society
dating
a social behavior that allows individuals to choose their own marriage partners
courtship
a social interaction similar to dating but with the sole purpose of eventual marriage
homogamy
tendency for individuals to marry people who have social characteristics similar to their own
adolescence
period between the normal onset of puberty and the beginning of adulthood
puberty
physical maturing that makes an individual capable of sexual reproduction
anticipatory socialization
learning of rights, obligations, and expectations of a role in preparation for assuming that role at a future date
drug
any substance that changes mood, behavior, or consciousness
courting buggy
a horse drawn buggy received by Amish men during their teenage years
Gerontology
Scientific study of the processes and phenomenon of aging
Dependency
shift from being an independent adult to being dependent on others for physical or financial assitance
young-old
65-74
middle-old
75-84
old-old
85+
Social gerontology
subfield of gerontology that studies the nonphysical aspects of aging
Alzheimer's disease
organic condition that results in the progressive destruction of brain cells
novice phase
term proposed by Daniel Levinson and his colleagues for the first three stages of the early adulthood era
late adulthood
third and last end of adulthood, spanning ages 65+
middle adulthood
second era of adulthood, spanning the ages of 40-59
Early adulthood
first era of adulthood, spanning ages 17-39
life structure
Combination of statuses, roles, activities, goals, values, beliefs, and life circumstances that characterize an individual
Mentor
someone who fosters an individual's development by believing in the person, sharing the person's dreams and helping them achieve those dreams
Labor force
All individuals 16 and older who are employed in paid positions or who are seeking paid employment
Unemployment
Situation that occurs when people do not have jobs that are actively seeking employment
Unemployment rate
Percentage of the civilian labor force that is unemployed that actively seeking employment
Profession
high status occupation that requires specialized skills obtained through formal education
Strain theory
theory of deviant behavior that views deviance as the natural outgrowth of the values, norms, and structure of society
Stigma
Mark of social disgrace that sets the deviant apart from the rest of society
Secondary deviance
non conformity that results in the individuals who commit acts of secondary deviance being labeled as deviant and accepting that label as true
Techniques of netreulization
suspending moral beliefs to commit deviant acts
Primary deviance
non conformity undetected by authority in which the invididuals who commit deviant acts do not consider themselves to be deviant and neither does society
Labeling theory
theory that focuses on how individuals come to be labeled as a deviatn
degradation ceremony
the process of labeling an individual as a deviant
Deviance
Behavior that violates significant social norms
Differential association
Proportion of associations a person has with a deviant vs. non deviant individuals
Criminologists
Social scientists who study criminal behavior
cultural transmission theory
thoery that views deviance as a learned behavior transmitted through interaction with others
Control theory
theory of deviant behavior i which deviance is seen as a natural occurence and conformity is seen as the result of social control
anomie
situation that arises when the norms of society are unclear or are no longer applicable
Plea bargaining
Process of legal negotiation that allows an accused person to plead guilty to a lesser charge in return for a lighter sentence
racial profiling
The practice of assuming nonwhite Americans are more likely to commit crimes than white Americans
police discretion
the power held by police officers to decide who is actually arrested
Criminal justice system
the system of police, courts, and corrections
Crime syndicate
large-scale organization of professional criminals that controls some vice or business through violence or threat of violence
white collar crime
crime that is comitted by an individual or individuals of high sociall status in the course of their professional lives
terroism
use of threatened or acutal violence in the pursuit of political goals
Crime
any act that is labeled as such by those in authority, is prohibited by law, and is punishable by the government
recidivism
repeated criminal behavior
corrections
sanctions - such as imprisonment, parole, and probations - used to punish criminals
organic solidarity
impersonal social relationships common in industrial societies that arise with increased job specialization
agents of socialization
specific individuals, groups, and institutions that provide the situations in which socialization can occur
socialization
interactive process through which individuals learn the basic skills, values, beliefs, and behavior patterns of society
me
part of the identity that is aware of the expectations and attitudes of society; the socialized self
feral children
wild or untamed children
aptitude
capacity to learn a particular skill or acquire a particular body or knowledge
personality
sum total of behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, and values that are characteristic of an individual
heredity
transmission of genetic characteristics from parents to children
sociobiology
systematic study of the biological basis of all behavior
mass media
newspapers, magazines, books, television, radio and other forms of communication that reach large audiences without personal contact between the senders and the ones receiving it
resocialization
break with past experiences and the learning of new values and norms
total institution
setting in which people are isolated from the rest of society for a set period of time and subjected to the control of officials of varied ranks
I
unsocialized, spontaneous, self interested component of the personality and self identity
generalized other
internalized atitudes, expectations, and viewpoints of society that we use to guide our behavior and reinforce our sense of self
significant others
specific people, such as parents, brothers, sisters, relatives and friends who have a direct influence on our socialization
role-taking
taking or pretending to take the role of others
looking-glass self
interactive process by which we develop an image of ourselves based on how we imagine we appear to others
self
conscious awareness of processing a distinct identity that seperates us from other members of society
peer group
primary group composed of individuals of roughly equal age and characteristics
instinct
unchaning, biologically inherited behavior pattern
mechanical solidarity
close knit social relationships common in preindustrial societies that result when a small group of people share the same values and perform the same tasks
industrial society
type of society in which the mechanized production of goods is the main economic activity
pastoral society
type of society characterized by a reliance on domesticated herd animals as the main form of subsistence
preindustrial society
type of society in which food production, carried out through human and animal labor, is the main economic activity
agricultural society
type of society characterized by the use of draft animals and plows in the tilling of fields
social control
enforcing of norms through either internalization or sanctions
informal sanction
spontaneous expression of approval or disapproval given by an individual or individuals
formal sanction
reward or punishment that is given by some formal organization or regulatory body, such as the government, the police, a corporation, or a school
negative sanction
sanction in the form of a punishment or the threat of punishment
positive sanction
sanction in the form of a reward
sanctions
rewards or punishments used to enforce conformity to norms
ideology
system of beliefs or ideas that justifies some social, moral, religious, political, or economic interests held by a social group or society
cultural lag
situation in which some aspects of the culture change less rapidly, or lag behind, other aspects of the same culture
reformulation
the process of adapting borrowed cultural traits
diffusion
spread of culture traits - ideas, acts, beliefs and material objects - from one society to another
social movement
long-term conscious effort to promote or prevent social change
narcissism
extreme self centeredness
self-fulfillment
commitment to the full development of one's personality, talents, and potential exercise and leisure
iron law of oligarchy
tendency of organizations to become increasingly dominated by small groups of people
voluntary association
non profit association formed to pursue some common interest
bureaucracy
ranked authority structure that operates according to specific rules and procedures
rationality
the process of subjecting every feature of human behavior to calulation, measurement, and control
formal organization
large, complex secondary group that has been established to achieve specific goals
Gemeinschaft
societies in which most members know one another, relationships are close, and activities center on the family and community
division of labor
specialization by individuals or groups in the performance of specific economic activities
Gesellschaft
societies in which social relationships are based on need rather than on emotion, relationships are impersonal and temporary, and individual goals are more important than group goals
subsistence strategies
ways in which a society uses technology to provide for the needs of its members
barter
practice of exchanging one good for another
primary group
small group of people who interact over a relatively long period of time on a direct and personal basis
in-group
group that an individual belongs to and identifies with
secondary group
interaction is impersonal and temporary
formal group
structure goals and activities are clearly defined
expressive leaders
leaders who are emotion orientated
triad
group with three members
diad
group with two members
small group
group with few enough members that they are able to interact with each other on a face to face basis
aggregate
group of people gathered in the same place at the same time who lack organization or lasting patterns of interaction
social category
group of people who share a common trait or status
out-group
any group an individual doesn't belong to or identify with
e-community
people who interact through electronic communication
social network
web of relationships that is formed by the sum total of an individual's interaction with other people
leaders
people who influence the attitudes and opinions of others
informal group
no official structure or established rules of conduct
reference group
any group with whom individuals identify and whose attitudes and values they often adopt
instrumental leaders
leaders who are task orientated
social structure
network of interrelated statuses and roles that guides human interaction
reciprocal roles
corresponding roles that define the patterns of interactions between related statuses
role
behavior, the rights and obligations, expected of someone occupying a particular status
role conflict
situation that occurs when fulfilling the expectations of one role makes it difficult to fulfill the expectations of another role
role expectations
socially determined behaviors expected of a person performing a role
role performance
actual behavior of a person performing a role
role set
different roles attached to a single status
role strain
situation that occurs when a person has difficulty meeting the expectations of a single role
status
socially defined position in a group or in a society
achieved status
status acquired by an individual on the basis of some special skill, knowledge, or ability
ascribed status
status assigned according to the standards that are beyond a person's control
master status
status that plays the greatest role in shaping a person's life and determining his or her own social identity
social institution
system of statuses, roles, values, and norms that is organized to satisfy one or more of the basic needs of society
accommodation
state of balance between cooperation and conflict
competition
interaction that occurs when two or more persons or groups oppose each other to achieve a goal that only one can attain
conflict
deliberate attempt to oppose harm, control by force, or resist the will of another person or persons
cooperation
interaction that occurs when two or more persons or groups work togehter to achieve a goal that will benefit many people
reciprocity
idea that if you do something for someone, they owe you something in return
exchange
individual, group, or societal interaction undertaken in an effort to receive a reward in turn for actions
exchange theory
theory that holds that people are motivated by self-interests in their interactions with other people
horticultural society
type of social mobility in which the individual moves from one position in a social-class level to another position in that same social social-class level
group
set of two or more people who interact on the basis of shared expectations and who possess some degree of common identity
postinudstrial society
type of society in which economic activity centers on the production of information and the provision of services
urbanization
concentration of the population in cities
hunting and gathering socieites
type of society characterized by the daily collection of wild plants and the hunting of wild animals as the main of subsistence
internalization
process by which a norm becomes a part of an idividual's personality, thereby conditioning the individual to conform to society's expectations