Gendered Organization Theory
Sex segregation, gender wage gap, and workplace discrimination from the workplace organization
Undoing Gendered Organizations
Hard to change without ruining the fundamental organization,
Prove it Again
Women are judged by a different less favorable metric than men. Are given less opportunities to prove themselves and are held to a higher standard when they do.
Women are judged vs. what men are judged on
Women are judged for their achievements while men are judged for their potential.
Women vs. Men's success
Men's success is attributed by skill while women's success is attributed by luck.
Glass Ceiling
An invisible barrier between women and top positions in masculine occupations. Civil Rights Act established a commission to eliminate this barrier
Glass Cliff
Heightened risk of failing for women compared to men
Double Bind
Expectation from women in male-dominated professions to do masculinity in order to be successful at their job and to do felinity to be accepted by managers, colleagues and clients
The glass Escalator
An invisible ride to the top offered to men in female- dominated occupations Men may sometimes experience stereotypes that are considered negative in female dominated professions. Stereotypes are often gendered and sexual. Minority men don't experience th
Tokenism (Smurfette Principle)
A stressful burden experienced by women in men's occupations. Tokens are accepted because of their minority status, not despite of it. They are actively discouraged from recruiting others like themselves, and become strongly wedded to organizational norms
Family-Work Conflict
Ideal worker norm: Employer should be able to devote themselves to their work without the distraction of family responsibilities.
Mommy Track is part of this
Mommy Track
Career Path with less opportunities for raises, promotions, or even equal pay. Mothers lose wages when they become a mom. Assuming working moms give up the quality of their work for their family. White women face a higher motherhood penalty.
Fatherhood Premium
Wage increase to married men who become fathers.
Ethnographic
studies involve "field work". They are based on
observations, and often include interviews as well.
Interviews
do not necessarily involve other forms of fieldwork.
Focus Groups
collective-interview formats, that can also
include observation of a group's dynamic, interaction, activity.
Survey
collect data from a large no. of respondents by phone, internet, and/ in person (filling-in or interviews), e.g. a census. Surveys are based on 'structured' questionnaires.
Experiments
involve a 'treatment' of one group of
participants with some sort of intervention, and an untreated 'control'. "Participants" may be real or... not.
Effects of being gay in hiring
In this experiment, there is evidence of discrimination against gay white men, compared to straight white men, however gay black men in the experiment received higher salary recommendations than straight black applicants.
Partial explanation: the stereoty
Study with the identical resumes with changed gender, race, sexual orientation conclusions
marginalized social categories do not necessarily 'add-up' to a "double disadvantage". In this case, the opposite may be true.
Remedies for workplace inequalities
State: Affirmative action, quotas, removing glass ceiling
Corporate: Most actions are optional
Hostile Sexism
Men who are bosses are the most likely to be hostile. Some men think a women should just stay in the home and not do "men's" work. Sometimes Is the from of isolation or deliberate carelessness. Women are targeted sexually.
Flight Attendants at the beginning
Hired for looks, Sexual innuendo was the rule. Rules were based on looks, no bad haircuts, acne, etc. Needed to submit to weigh ins. Poorly paid and faced sexual harassment.
Job Segregation
Jobs aren't inherently masculine or feminine, its just stereotypes that keep being reinforced.
Social construction of jobs is about actively making work meaningful in gendered ways. So, shouldn't be surprised to see that jobs are gendered across cultures.
Socialization Hypothesis to explain Job segregation
Men and women respond to gender stereotypes when planning, training, and applying for jobs. Individual
Network Hypothesis
Hiring often through personal networks, which are themselves gendered, so hiring is gendered in turn,
Employer Selection Hypothesis
Employers tend to prefer men for masculine jobs and women for feminine jobs.
Desertion Hypothesis
Workers tend to abandon counter-stereotypical occupations at a higher rate than stereotypical ones.
When flight attendant switched from being a male job to a female job
When it switched the importance of the job was downplayed and the subordinate role of supportive and sexually playful service increased.
Androcentric Pay Scale
A strong correlation between wages and the gender compostion of the job. Expect male-dominated jobs to be the highest paying because they are more valued.
masculinization of wealth
Concentration of men in high earning occupations.
Emotion Work
controlling one's own and influencing others' emotions. Women often seen to do this work
Care work
Work that involves, face-to-face caretaking of the physical, emotional, and educational needs of others. "Women's work" Women and men can lose prestige and income when they enter a feminine occupation. Why jobs are segregated- women also want to work in m
Women seen as a symbolic threat
Presence potentially degrades the identity of the dominant group: ex: women firefighters, degrade firefighters
Benevolent Sexism
Some men believe they are being nice and protecting women from unpleasant activities, but end up undermining their career trajectories. Men with housewives at home display stronger prejudices.
Gender Essentialism
The notion that men and women are innately and fundamentally different in interests and skills.
Gender Egalitarianism
Women can now enter formerly "male" occupations
Class and Segregation
Middle-class jobs showed dramatic desegregation.
Blue-collar jobs are still very segregated.
England
Women have entered the male realm more than males have entered the women's realm. Not allowed to be paid less for the same job, but if they are different jobs than it doesn't matter.
Meso-Level
Workplaces, organizations, Changes
relatively rapidly�within weeks-to-decades range
Macro-Level
Labor markets, institutions, They consist of rules and norms, Changes more slowly/gradually (over decades)
Gender Job Segregation
filling occupations with mostly male or mostly female workers. Both between jobs and within jobs (Pediatricians vs. sports doctors)
2 Persisting Trends
1. Gender Job Segregation
2. Gender Pay Gap
What Explains the Gender Wage Gap
1. Blunt Wage discrimination
2. Women's interrupted employment�Work-Family conflict seen as women's problem, and women accumulate less experience
3. Occupational and Job Segregation
Gender Wage Gap by education
Women do not receive the same returns on
education for their level of attainment.
The difference in pay by degree cannot be
explained merely by the impact of childrearing
Occupational Segregation
different occupations as they are defined
by the US Census, e.g. University Teacher, Cook, etc.
Job Level Segregation
focuses on specific positions workers
hold within these broad occupational categories
e.g. MacDonald's manager and the manager at a
Wisconsin slaughterhouse.
Human Capital Theory
people make skill related investments, based on the gender conditions in the market.
Individual
Sociological explanations for pay gap
a) individual choice and b) gendered
analysis of organization in order to demonstrate
not only how individuals adapt to an already
gendered labor market, but that gender
distinctions are fundamental to the
functioning of labor markets and workplaces.
Skilling
The gendered construction of skill, use of androcentric criteria, women's work is often framed as "natural", doesn't require a lot of skill.
Comparable Worth
Policy proposal for redressing gender wage. Based on job evaluation.
Formal Paid Labor
a legal contract, an hourly
wage, a salary or some kind of paycheck taxes
are taken from (income reported to the govt).
Informal paid labor
no legal contract, no
necessary set hourly wage or salary, and none
of the income is reported to the government.
Piece-Meal Work
low-scale production within the household (e.g. garments). Usually several family members work, and head of household (man) collects the money from contractor/retailer.
Own-Account Work
self employed with no other co-working employee
Precarious Work
economies are characterized by
temporary, flexible, intermittent and casual forms of labor. Jobs are no longer marked by the security or benefits of unionized, long-term contracts, so from the point of view of workers they are uncertain, unpredictable and