Deductive
-Moves from general to specific, moves from a pattern that might be logically or theoretically expected ==> observations that test whether the expected pattern actually occurs.
-Starts from some general law and applies it to a particular instance
Inductive
-Moves from specific to general, from a set of specific observations to the discovery of a pattern that explains the relationships between the objects being observed
-Doesn't tell why a pattern exists- just that it does
Literature review
Most original research is seen as an extension of what has previously been learned about a particular topic. A review of the literature is the way we learn what's already known and not known.
Dependent variable
Assumed to depend on or be caused by another variable
Independent variable
Causes or determines the dependent variable
Unit of analysis
the what or whom being studied; typically individual people
Nomothetic explanations
-Seek to identify only a few causal factors that generally impact a class or group of situations or events, rather than a single event
- settles for a partial rather than a full explanation
-three main criteria for nomothetic causal relationships
-false c
Idiographic explanations
-Exhaustive understanding of the causes of a particular specific situation or event
Correlation
an empirical relationship between two variables such that changes in one are associated with changes in the other
Spurious relationship
a coincidental statistical correlation between two variables, shown to be caused by some third variable
Ecological fallacy
Incorrectly basing conclusions about individuals solely on the observations of groups
Concept
A general idea, agreement, or understanding about what a term means
Conceptualization
the process of coming to an agreement about what terms mean (the result is called a concept); imprecise notions (concepts) are made more specific and precise
Operationalization
specifying the exact operations involved in measuring a variable; levels of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio)
Nominal measure
merely offers names or labels for characteristics (ex: gender); the only measure without rank order
Ordinal measure
variables with attributes we can logically rank-order (ex: religiosity)
Interval measure
variable whose attributes are rank-ordered and have equal distances between adjacent attributes (ex: IQ)
Ratio measure
variable with attributes that have all the qualities of nominal, ordinal, and interval and in addition are based on a "true zero" point. (ex: age)
Absolute zero
absence of
Reliability
a matter of whether a particular technique, applied repeatedly to the same object, yields the same result each time
Validity
refers to the extent to which an empirical measure adequately reflects the real meaning of the concept under consideration
Variable
logical sets of attributes (The variable sex is made up of the attributes male and female)
Case
what you are observing (usually people)
Scientists begin with a theory, from which they derive a _______ that they can test
hypothesis
Population
specified aggregation of the elements in a study
Sampling frame
list of elements from which a probability sample is selected. If a sample of students is selected from a student roster, the roster is the sampling frame.
Probability sampling
general term for samples selected in accordance with probability theory, typically involving some random selection mechanism.
Non-probability sampling
Any technique in which samples are selected in some way not suggested by probability theory: (4 types)
-reliance on available subjects (convenience)
-purposive (judgmental)
-snowball
-quota sampling
Representative
A sample is representative when it has the same distribution of characteristics as the population from which it was selected
Theory
provides logical explanations for patterns observed (without this, the patterns could be flukes) ==> [3 purposes of theory]
Purposes of theory
1) Helps explain future events (fluke, or likely to happen again?)
2) Makes sense of observed patterns to suggest other possibilities
3) Helps shape and direct research efforts, pointing toward likely discoveries
Negative correlation
^v; v^
Positive correlation
^^; VV
Open-ended question
Questions for which the respondent is asked to provide his or her own answers. In-depth, qualitative interviewing relies almost exclusively on open-ended questions.
Closed-ended question
Survey questions in which the respondent is asked to select an answer from among a list provided by the researcher. These are popular in survey research because they provide a greater uniformity of responses and are more easily processed than open-ended q
Double-barreled question
A question with multiple parts
Bias
In the context of questionnaires, bias refers to any property of questions that encourages respondents to answer in a particular way.
Contingency question
A survey question intended for only some respondents, determined by their responses to some other question.
Secondary analysis
A form of research in which the data collected and processed by one researcher are reanalyzed- often for a different purpose- by another. This is especially appropriate in the case of survey data. Data archives are libraries for the storage and distributi
Qualitative vs quantitative data
nonnumerical vs numerical
Unobtrusive research
Methods of studying social behavior without affecting it. This includes content analysis, analysis of existing statistics, and comparative and historical research
Coding
The process whereby raw data are transformed into standardized form suitable for machine processing and analysis
Manifest content
In connection with content analysis, the concrete terms contained in a communication, as distinguished from latent content
Latent content
In connection with content analysis, the underlying meaning of communications, as distinguished from manifest content
Existing statistics
Using data analysis that others have already performed; can often provide a historical or conceptual context within which to locate your original research; can also provide the main data for a social science inquiry; should always be considered as at leas
Everyday observations are not an accurate way to collect information. Four common errors:
-inaccurate observations
-over-generalization
-selective observation
-illogical reasoning
ASA format
In-text: (Name date) or (Name date:pp#)
Reference: Last name, First. Date. "Title." (I)Source Title(/I)
or
Last name, First. Date. (I) Title of article (/I). City:Publishing company.
Three main criteria for nomothetic causal relationships (causal relationship between variables):
1) Variables must be correlated (must have a relationship)
2) The cause takes place before the effect (independent variable must come before dependent variable)
3) Relationship between variables must be nonspurious
Cross-sectional study
involves observations of a sample (or cross-section) of a population or phenomenon that are made at one point in time
Longitudinal study
involves data collected at different points in time; observations of the same phenomenon over an extended period
-trend, cohort, panel
Longitudinal: Trend
examines changes within a population over time
Longitudinal: Cohort
examines specific subpopulations (or cohorts) as they change over time, although data may be collected from different members in each set of observations
Longitudinal: Panel
data is collected from the same set of people (the sample or panel) at several points in time
Most research is _______ rather than _______ because of the time and financial intensity.
cross-sectional rather than longitudinal
Conceptualization
the process of coming to an agreement about what terms mean (the result is called a concept); imprecise notions (concepts) are made more specific and precise
Operationalization
specifying the exact operations involved in measuring a variable; levels of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio)
Attributes of a variable should be ____ and ____
exhaustive and mutually exclusive
Mutually exclusive
two events are mutually exclusive if they cannot occur at the same time
Attribute
a characteristic or quality that describes an object (male, female, intelligent, dishonest)
Variable
logical sets of attributes (The variable sex is made up of the attributes male and female)
Two types of sampling methods:
-Probability sampling
-Nonprobability sampling
Nonprobability sampling:
Any technique in which samples are selected in some way not suggested by probability theory: (4 types)
-reliance on available subjects (convenience)
-purposive (judgmental)
-snowball
-quota sampling
Reliance on available subjects (convenience) sampling
Ex: stopping people on the street or some other location; common method for journalists
Purposive (judgmental) sampling
Units to be observed are selected on the basis of knowledge about a population and the researcher's judgment about which ones will be the most useful or representative
Snowball sampling
Each person interviewed may be asked to suggest additional people for interviewing
Quota sampling
Begins with a matrix or table describing the characteristics of the population. Units are selected into a sample on the basis of prespecified characteristics, so that the total sample will have the same distribution of characteristics assumed to exist in
Probability sampling
general term for samples selected in accordance with probability theory, typically involving some random selection mechanism.
Simple random sampling
type of probability sampling in which the units composing a population are assigned numbers. A set of random numbers is then generated, and the units having those numbers are included in the sample.
Systematic sampling
type of probability sampling in which every kth unit is selected in the sample- for example, every 25th students in the college directory
Stratified sampling (stratification)
The grouping of units composing a population into homogeneous groups (strata) before sampling. Used in conjunction with other sampling and improves representativeness
How to generate a random sample
coin, dice, table of random numbers, or computer programs.
Data collection strategies:
survey; participant observation/field research; content analysis; existing statistics
Participant observation/field research
...