What is technology ? Does it always involve tools?
Simply "a way to do something," either something that couldn't be done before or doing something in a better way (faster, more efficient, etc.)
Does not always involve tools
What was the impact of the plow? (direct and indirect effects)
First harnessing of non-human energy.
sizeable surplus as a result of more efficient farming.
pushed women out of agriculture (b/c they couldn't breastfeed while farming anymore) leading to inside-outside dichotomy
indirect:
creation of class system
led y
What are the 4 main characteristics of technology?
Systemic: Rarely can be thought of as just a single gadget
Uncertain: Because there's more than one way to do something
Dynamic: Constantly changing & developing
Cumulative: Almost always building on existing knowledge and experience
What do we mean when we say that technology has to be understood as a system ?
Technology's implementation requires more than the technology itself (other technologies, organization, social values, social attitudes, etc.)
What is a reverse salient ?
A component of a developing technology whose innovation is so behind the rest that it impedes the improvement of the technology as a whole, it is a product of the uneven development of technology
Is technology always designed with a practical purpose in mind?
Sometimes technology develops because of the challenge and the enjoyment some get from solving a perplexing problem.
Is technological progress the same thing as social progress?
No! Is human cloning progress? Would designer children be progressive? Is it progress to be able to keep a 90-yr old person alive, at enormous costs, with little quality of life? Technology cannot answer these questions! Society (humans) have to make that
What is technological determinism ?
a view which asserts technology is neutral - it develops according to its own internal logic dictated by technical requirements; after its development, technology impacts society
Is technology really neutral, or can it be political (non-neutral)?
Langdon Winner said technology can be inherently political.
technology can be designed,consciously or unconsciously, to open certain options and to close others. (NY builder who built bridges low enough so public buses can't get through)
technology can pr
What is Pacey's concept of "technology-practice
The "technology-practice" is the organizational and cultural components of technology
How does Pacey's concept of "technology practice" differ from the conventional notion of technology?
Conventional notion of technology ignores these factors and only focuses on the technical aspects; Pacey argues the technical aspects are neutral, but the technology-practice is not
Define Bijker's "social construction of technology" (SCOT)
SCOT is a view that argues society and technology affect the development of each other (they're co-constructed)
How does Bijker's SCOT differ from Pacey's "technology-practice?
It says even the technical components of technology are socially constructed
How does Bijker's SCOT differ from technological determinism?
It essentially destroys the neutrality of technology
What does Bijker mean when he refers to relevant social groups and interpretive flexibility ?
Interpretative flexibility means that each technological artifact has different meanings and interpretations for various groups. Bijker and Pinch show that the air tire of the bicycle meant a more convenient mode of transportation for some people, whereas
How do dramatic breakthroughs and improvements/refinements to existing technologies differ?
Dramatic breakthroughs are the work of talented individuals (inventors) whose names are well preserved in history, while improvements/refinements are generally the work of a group of talented individuals whose names are lost to history. Also, improvements
Define R&D
Research & Development", the process of making a technology "work
What is the role of both Research and Development (separately) in technological development?
Research forms the basis of technological advance, but almost never produces a useable product. Development is slow and more expensive than research, but it is required to reach the potential of research discoveries (resolve problems, form product at a re
Define "scaling up
Turning a prototype that works in the lab into something that can be efficiently mass produced (usually requires solution of reverse salients)
What are translators?
People and organizations capable of functioning in different environments, have the incentive to do so, and speak the same technical language
What role do translators play in technological development and the diffusion of technology?
They spread technology between industries and countries, and promote development by spreading the technology to many different minds capable of improving it (they also spread knowledge between science and technology)
What is effective demand ?
Not only people wanting a new technology, but being able to pay for it
How have social forces such as gender, race and class impacted the development of technologies?
Men use technology to make a profit whereas women process the resources men bring home. Using machines confer prestige.
In what ways do the market forces of a capitalist economy work to promote technological innovation?
1. Profit motive
2. Competition
3. Systems (any need will be met)
There are usually 2 big companies who battle over a share of the market so technological advances are very valuable.
How did the centrally-planned (non-market driven) economies of the Soviet Union and other state socialist societies of the 20th century inhibit the development of technology?
Innovation cannot be planned for. With no competition, firms have no incentive to innovate. In fact, if processes become more efficient, the factory manangers might demand the same increase in efficiency each year.
How important are economic considerations in the development of technology?
Economic considerations are definitely important when it comes to capitalist societies such as the United States. A capitalist society tends to focus on the cost of technology as the profits from it. However, economic consideration is not the only factor
Are there technologies where economic considerations take a back seat to other factors?
Yes, there are many innovations that have been invented merely for the "fun" of it.
Also, costs are of secondary concern to defense and medical industries. The concern for national defense and patient health overcome the economical concerns.
Is technology simply "applied science"?
Not necessarily. Throughout history we have seen that technological development and scientific development has not always been related.
Do scientific advantages and technological innovations go hand-in-hand?
No they do not. Take for instance, the Greeks and Romans. Often one aspect, either technology or science, had more improvements than the other. Our society today breaks that pattern as we have both technological and scientific advantages. However, there a
How do science and technology differ from each other?
Science is seen as an intellectual endeavor that is independent from politics, the economy, and consumers. Scientists have a greater degree of freedom as they try to find the "truth".
With technology, engineers are generally restrained more when it comes
What ways are science and technology similar?
Both are based on the gathering of knowledge, are cumulative, rely on rational thought processes, use mathematics, use knowledge that is organized and generally shared (less so for engineers), and share a sense of optimism and progress.
How does science and technology stimulate the development of the other?
Science and technology have a feedback relationship. Technology can be developed to aid scientists and scientific information can be founded to aid technology. For example, the invention of the steam injector led scientists from the Caloric Theory of Heat
What is technological diffusion?
The borrowing of technology and technological practices from other societies. It is the way technology is spread.
Why did China fall behind Europe and Japan in technological development?
China did not trust outside influences and did not want to borrow anything from other societies. Europe and Japan, on the other hand, had no issue with copying technologies from other societies.
What is the brain drain?
Bright young students from other countries come to the United States to study and end up staying in the United States instead of going back to their home country. This leads to technological developments in the United States but the student's home country
Is it advisable for developing nations (i.e. what used to be termed "3rd World" countries) simply to emulate the U.S. and Japan in adopting new technologies? Why or why not?
No it is not advisable as many of the technologies the U.S. has developed would not help developing nations as it is aimed towards reducing labor. Developing countries often need to maximize labor to account for their growing populations. Technologies dev
What is appropriate technology? What are its goals?
Appropriate technology is technology that is appropriate to the needs of a country. This technology must increase employment, narrow the socioeconomic gap, contribute to economic independence, and preserve the environment.
In what ways has the diffusion of western technologies to developing nations skewed and distorted those nations' development?
It has led to nations becoming poorer than when they were starting out. Often the western technologies are only available to the privileged few, so it widens socioeconomic gaps. Nations then have to rely on western technologies.
What affects the choice of a particular technology over other, competing technologies? Is it just the technical merits of that technology, rational economic considerations, or are there other reasons?
Technologies can be selected because they are better for the environment or because they will have social benefits. Sometimes they are selected because they satisfy the needs of powerful segments in society. Economical reasons still come into play, but th
What are patents, and how do they work to stimulate and/or slow down technological development?
A patent gives the inventor the right to sue over the use of their invention. Patents can lead to companies finding different ways to develop technology. However, they can also slow down technology if the patent isn't being used to develop technology but
How does the "bottom-up" diffusion of technology, as exemplified in the examples used in Assignment 2, differ from the conventional "top down" technology transfers from developed to developing nations?
The "bottom-up" diffusion of technology is technology discovered by the people living in developing nations. Instead of technology delivered by "experts" above, it fosters the growth of technology that is specific to the needs of that country. This helps
When businesses are deciding whether to adopt a new technology, what factors guide their decisions, and ultimately determine the speed at which new innovations are adopted by firms?
There are five factors that guide their decision:
1. The advantage the new technology will give over the old technology.
2. How compatible the new technology is with the company's values.
3. How easy or difficult it is the apply and understand the new tec
What is the difference between uncertainty and risk?
Uncertainty is the inability to predict an outcome. Risk implies some idea of the probability of a specific outcome.
What is the debate between open source and proprietary software? What are the arguments for and against each side?
Open source software is free and is useful to developing countries. Countries can modify the software to their needs and do not need to rely on outside help. With open source software, there is normally a global community that can help resolve any problem
Who are first adopters? What are their characteristics that set them apart from other users of tech?
First adopters are people who use new technologies before most of society does. They are often more educated and wealthy enough to afford the new technology.
How does the diffusion of technology widen existing social gaps in societies?
First adopters often reap windfall profits from the new technology, making it harder for people who aren't using the new technology to catch up.
What strategies can be used to prevent or minimize this negative effect?
Strategies such as educating those at the bottom, subsidizing new technologies, and having a cooperative structure can help minimize this negative effect.
What are the unanticipated consequences of technology?
They are changes due to an innovation that is neither intended nor recognized by the members of society. They are consequences not foreseen or dealt with beforehand. Often, an unanticipated consequence of technology is widening socioeconomic gaps.
What are the causes of unanticipated consequences?
By not understanding the meaning of an innovation, unanticipated consequences can occur. They can also occur when the motives of the user of the innovation are not understood. (Rogers)
Technology can be seen as a system. The complexity, dynamics, intransp
How can unanticipated consequences be avoided or minimized?
By changing how the innovation is introduced, it can help narrow socioeconomic gaps. By providing better communication from the top down, or the down up, socioeconomic gaps can be narrowed. This will help maintain dynamic equilibrium. (Rogers)
Increase kn
What are the ethical principles, according to Healy, that must guide the diffusion of technology?
1. Take advantages to reduce uncertainty.
2. Share equally in the benefits of a project.
3. People who do not share in the benefit should not be affected to costs and risks.
4. People who gain some benefit should chose their level of cost and risk.
5. Pro
What are genetically-modified crops and what ethical considerations arise in relation to them?
Genetically modified crops have their DNA changed in a lab to have more nutrients or to be resistant to disease. It has led to ethical considerations on how it is impacting the environment (could disease resistant genes spread to weeds?) as well as humans
What is lab-grown meat and what ethical considerations arise in relation to it?
Lab-grown meat are animal cells grown in a lab to make meat. It is meant to help prevent the unsustainable consumption of real meat. The ethical considerations are whether it is better for society and how to best to introduce the public to lab-grown meat.
How does technological advance in one area stimulate technological development in other areas?
Often leaps occur when development in complementary technology fixes a fundamental underlying problem in the main technology.