deviance
The recognized violation of cultural norms.
crime
The violation of a society's formally enacted criminal law.
social control
Attempts by society to regulate people's thoughts and behavior.
criminal justice system
The organizations - police, courts, and prison officials - that respond to alleged violations of the law.
Emile Durkheim's Theory of the Functions of Deviance
(1) Deviance affirms cultural values and norms, (2) responding to deviance clarifies moral boundaries, (3) responding to deviance brings people together, (4) deviance encourages social change.
Merton's strain theory
Robert Merton asserts that deviance is in accordance to a society's cultural goals and the means available to achieve them.
(1) If one accepts conventional means and accepts cultural goals, one engages in conformity.
(2) If one accepts conventional means
Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin's theory on deviance
Deviance or conformity depends on the relative opportunity structure that frames a person's life. Where the structure of opportunity favors criminal activity, there will be a development of criminal subcultures. If people are unable to find any opportunit
Walter Miller's theory on subcultures
Subcultures are characterized by (1) trouble, (2) toughness, (3) smartness, (4) a need for excitement, (5) a belief in fate, (6) a desire for freedom.
labeling theory
The idea that deviance and conformity result not so much from what people do as from how others respond to those actions.
stigma
A powerfully negative label that greatly changes a person's self-concept and social identity.
medicalization of deviance
The transformation of moral and legal deviance into a medical condition. In practice, this means a change in labels, replacing "good" and "bad" with "sick" and "well.
retrospective labeling
This occurs after a person is stigmatized and people reinterpret that person's past in light of some present deviance.
projective labeling
This occurs after a person is stigmatized and people use a deviant identity to predict that person's future.
The difference labels make
Whether we define deviance as a moral or a medical issue affects (1) who responds to deviance, (2) how people respond to deviance, and (3) depends on the personal competence of he deviant person.
Sutherland's differential association theory
Links deviance to how much others encourage or discourage such behavior.
Hirschi's control theory
States that imagining the possible consequences of deviance often discourages such behavior. People who are well integrated into society are less likely to engage in deviant behavior. Conformity is linked to four different types of social control: attachm
white-collar crime
Crime committed by people of high social position in the course of their occupations.
corporate crime
The illegal actions of a corporation or people acting on its behalf. Although corporation crimes cause considerable public harm, most cases go unpunished.
organized crime
A business supplying illegal goods or services.
hate crime
A criminal act against a person or a person's property by an offender motivated by racial or other bias.
Structural-Functional approach to deviance
This macro-level analysis views deviance as a basic part of social organization. By defining deviance, society sets its moral boundaries. Deviance is important because it is universal: it exists in all societies.
Symbolic-Interaction Approach to deviance
This micro-level analysis views deviance as part of socially constructed reality that emerges in interaction. Deviance comes into being as individuals labels something deviant. Deviance is important because it is variable: any act or person may or may not
Social-Conflict Approach to deviance
This macro-level analysis states that deviance results from social inequality. Norms, including laws, reflect the interests of powerful members of society. It is important because deviance is political: people with little power are at high risk of being l
crimes against the person
(Violent crimes) crimes that direct violence or the threat of violence against others.
crimes against the property
(Property crimes) crimes that involve theft of money or property belonging to others.
victimless crimes
Violations of law in which there are no obvious victims.
plea bargaining
A legal negotiation in which a prosecutor reduces a charge in exchange for a defendant's guilty plea.
retribution
An act of moral vengeance by which society makes the offender suffer as much as the suffering caused by the crime. Justifications: It is the oldest justification for punishment, and punishment is society's revenge for a moral wrong.
deterrence
The attempt to discourage criminality through the use of punishment. Justifications: it's an early modern approach, crime is considered a social disruption, which society acts to control, people are viewed as rational and self-interested; deterrence works
rehabilitation
A program for reforming the offender to prevent later offenses. Justifications: It's a modern strategy linked to the development of social sciences, crime and other deviance are viewed as the result of social problems or personal problems, and social cond
societal protection
Rendering an offender incapable of further offenses temporarily through imprisonment or permanently by execution. Justifications: It's a modern approach easier to carry out than rehabilitation, and even if society is unable or unwilling to rehabilitate of
criminal recidivism
Later offenses by people previously convicted of crimes.
community-based corrections
Correctional programs operating within society at large rather than behind prison walls.