social inequality
a condition in which members of society have different amounts of wealth, prestige, or power
stratification
a structured ranking of entire groups of people that perpetuates unequal economic rewards and power in a society
slavery
a system of enforced servitude in which some people are owned by others as property
caste
a hereditary rank, usually religiously dictated, that tends to be fixed and immobile
estate system
a system of stratification under which peasants were required to work land leased to them by nobles in exchange for military protection and other services. also known as feudalism
class system
a social ranking based primarily on economic position in which achieved characteristics can influence social mobility
social mobility
movement of individuals or groups from one position in a society's stratification system to another
open system
a social system in which the position of each individual is influenced by his or her achieved status
closed system
a social system in which there is little or no possibility of individual social mobility
horizontal mobility
the movement of an individual from one social position to another of the same rank
vertical mobility
the movement on an individual from one social position to another of a different rank
intergenerational mobility
changes in the social position of children relative to their parents
intragenerational
changes in social position within a person's adult life
capitalism
an economic system in which the means of production are held largely in private hands and the main incentive for economic activity is the accumulation of profits
bourgeoisie
Karl Marx's term for the capitalist class, comprising the owners of the means of production
proletariat
Karl Marx's term for the working class in a capitalist society
class consciousness
In Karl Marx's view, a subjective awareness held by members of a class regarding their common vested interests and need for collective political action to bring about social change
false consciousness
a term used by Karl Marx to describe an attitude held by members of a class that does not accurately reflect their objective position
class
a group of people who have a similar level of economic resources
status group
people who have the same prestige or lifestyle, independent of their class positions
party
the capacity to organize to accomplish some particular goal
cultural capital
our tastes, knowledge, attitudes, language, and ways of thinking that we exchange in interaction with others
prestige
the respect and admiration that an occupation holds in a society
esteem
the reputation that a specific person has earned within an occupation
socioeconomic status
a measure of class that is based on income, education, occupation, and related variables
income
wages and salaries measured over some period, such as per hour or year
wealth
the total of all a person's material assets, including savings, land, stocks, and other types of property, minus his or her debt at a single point in time
absolute poverty
a minimum level of subsistence that no family should be expected to live below
relative poverty
a floating standard of deprivation by which people at the bottom of a society, whatever their lifestyles, are judged to be disadvantaged in comparison with the nation as a whole
underclass
the long-term poor who lack training and skills
life chances
the opportunites people have to provide themselves with material goods, positive living conditions, and favorable life experiences
digital divide
the relative lack of access to the latest technologies among low-income groups, racial and ethnic minorities, rural residents, and the citizens of developing countires
modernization
the far reaching process by which nations pass from traditional forms of social organization toward those characteristic of post-industrial Revolution socieites
colonialism
the maintenance of political, social, economic, and cultural dominance over a people by a foreign power for an extended period
neocolonialism
continuing dependence of former colonies on foreign countries
world systems analysis
a view of the global economic system as one divided between certain industrialized nations that control wealth and developing countries that are controlled and exploited
dependency theory
an approach contending that industrialized nations continue to exploit developing countries for their own gain
globalization
the worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas
multinational corporation
a commerical organization that is headquartered in one country but does business throughout the world
gross national product
the value of a nation's goods and services
borderlands
the area of common culture along the border between Mexico and the U.S.
remittances
the monies that immigrants return to their families of origin
human rights
universal moral rights possessed by all people because they are human
sex
the biological differences between males and females
gender
the social and cultural significance that we attach to the biological differences of sex
homophobia
fear of and prejudice again homosexuality
multiple masculinities
the idea that men learn and play a full range of gender roles
instrumental leader
the person in the family who bears responsibility for the completion of tasks, focuses on more distant goals, and manages the external relationships between one's family and other social institutions
expressive leader
the person in the family who bears responsibility for the maintenance of harmony and internal emotional affairs
glass ceiling
an invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified individual in a work environment because of the individual's gender, race, or ethnicity
second shift
the double burden- work outside the home followed by child care and housework- that many women face and few men share equitably
sexism
the ideology that one sex is superior to the other
institutional discrimination
a pattern of treatment that systematically denies a group access to resources and opportunities as part of society's normal operations
feminism
the belief in social, economic, and political equality for women
gerontology
the study of the sociological and psychological aspects of aging and the problems of the aged
disengagement theory
a theory of aging that suggests that society and the aging individual mutually sever many of their relationships
activity theory
a theory of aging that suggets that those elderly people who remain active and socially involved will be best adjusted
ageism
prejudice and discimination based on a person's age
hospice care
treatment of the terminally ill in their own homes, or in special hospital unites or other facilities, with the goal of helping them to die comfortably, without pain
minority group
a subordinate group whose members, even if they represent a numeric majority, have significantly less control or power over their own lives than the members of a dominant or majority groups have over theirs
racial group
a group that is set apart from others because of physical differences that have taken on social significance
ethnic group
a group that is set apart from others primarily because of its national origin or distinctive cultural patterns
racial formation
a sociohistorical process in which racial categories are created, inhibited, transformed, and destroyed
stereotype
an unreliable generalization about all members of a group that does not recognize individual differences within the group
prejudice
a negative attitude toward an entire category of people, often an ethnic or racial minority
racism
the belief that one race is supreme and all others are innately inferior
hate crime
a criminal offense committed because of the offender's bias against an inidividual based on race, religion, ethnicity, national origin, or sexual orientation
color-blind racism
the use of race-neutral principles to perpetuate a racially unequal status quo
discrimination
the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups because of prejudice or other arbitrary reasons
racial profiling
any police-initiated action based on race, ethnicity, or national origin rather than on a person's behavior
institutional discrimination
the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups that results from the normal operations of a society
affirmative action
positive efforts to recruit minority group members or women for jobs, promotions, and educational opportunities
exploitation theory
a belief that views racial subordination in the US as a manifestation of the class system inherent in capitalism
contact hypothesis
the theory that in cooperative circumstances interracial contact between people of equal status will reduce prejudice
genocide
the deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation
amalgamation
the process through which a majority group and a minority group combine to form a new group
assimilation
the process through which a person forsakes his or her own cultural tradition to become part of a different culture
segregation
the physical separation of two groups of people in terms of residence, workplace, and social events; often imposed on minority group by a dominant group
apartheid
a former policy of the South African government, designed to maintain the separation of Blacks and other non-Whites from the dominant Whites
pluralism
mutual respect for one another's cultures among the various groups in sociey, which allows minorities to express their own cultures without experiencing prejudice
black power
a political philosophy, promoted by many younger Blacks in the 1960s, that supported the creation of Black-controlled political and economic institutions
model or ideal minority
a subordinate group whose members supposedly have succeeded economically, socially, and educationally despite past prejudice and discrimination
anti-Semitism
anti-Jewish prejudice
symbolic ethnicity
an ethnic identity that emphasizes concerns such as ethnic food or political issues rather than deeper ties to one's ethnic heritage