Sociology
the study of human groups and societies, emph on analysis of industrialized world.
Sociological Imagination
the application of imaginative thought to the asking and answering of sociological questions. someone using the sociological imagination "thinks himself away" from the familiar routines of daily life.
Social Facts
Durkheim, the aspects of social life that shape our actions as individuals. studied scientifically.
Anomie
Durkheim, referring to a situation in which social norms lose their hold over individual behavior.
Functionalist perspective
social events can best be explained in terms of the functions they perform- that is, the contributions they make to the continuity of a society.
Conflict perspective
Theoretical perspective that focuses on those forces in society that promote competition and change
Interactionist perspective
A sociological approach that generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction in order to explain society as a whole.
Latent functions
functional consequences that are not intended or recognized by the members of a social system in which they occur.
Verstehen
understanding social behavior by putting yourself in the place of others
Independent variable
a variable whose values are independent of changes in the values of other variables
Random sample
a variable chosen so that every member of a population has the same probability of being included.
control variable
A variable that is kept constant during a controlled experiment.
survey
a method of sociological research in which questionnaires are administered to the population being studied.
ethnography
the firsthand study of people using participant observation or interviewing.
experiment
a research method in which variables can be analyzed in a controlled and systematic way, either in an artificial situation constructed by the researcher or in naturally occurring settings.
hypothesis
ideas or guesses about a given state of affairs, put forward as bases for empirical testing.
validity
the quality of being logically valid
reliability
the trait of being dependable or reliable
culture
the norms, values and material goods characteristic of a group.
cultural universals
values or modes of behavior shared by all human cultures
dominant culture
predominant culture that absorbs others.
subculture
values and norms distinct from those of the majority, held by a group within a wider society.
counterculture
a culture that opposes the norms and values of most cultures
culture shock
a result of a transition between cultures that are very different from each other.
cultural relativism
the practice of judging a society by its own standards.
Ethnocentrism
the tendency to look at other cultures through the eyes of one's own culture, and thereby misrepresent them.
Socialization
the process through which children develop an awareness of social norms and values.
anticipatory socialization
The process by which an individual learns to assume a role in the future
impression management
Manipulating one's perception of your characteristics
looking-glass self
An image of yourself based on what you believe others think of you
total institutions
places in which people are separated from the rest of society and controlled by officials in charge
ascribed status
social position a person receives at birth or involuntarily later in life
achieved status
a social position a person takes on voluntarily that reflects personal ability and effort
the social construction of reality
The process by which people create through social interactions certain ideas, feelings, and beliefs about their environment.
role conflict
conflict among the roles connected to two or more statuses
social structure
the underlying regularities or patterns in how people behave and in their relationships with one another.
primary group
group that are characterized by intense emotional ties, face-to-face interaction, intimacy, and a strong, enduring sense of commitment.
reference group
a group that provides a standard for judging one's attitudes or behaviors.
formal organization
means by which a group is rationally designed to achieve its objectives, often by means of explicit rules, regulations, and procedures.
bureaucracy
a type of organization marked by a clear hierarchy of authority and the existence of written rules of procedure and staffed by full-time, salaried officials.
McDonaldization of society
the process by which the principles of the fast-food restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society as well as the rest of the world
Crime
any action contrary to the law established by a political authority.
Deviance
modes of action that do not conform to the norms and values held by most members of a group or society.
White-collar crime
criminal activities carried out by those in white-collar, or professional jobs.
Medicalization of deviance
An increasing number of behaviors that earlier generations defined as being immoral or sinful are coming to be seen as forms of sickness.
Social Stratification
The existence of structured inequalities between groups in society, in terms of their access to material or symbolic rewards.
Caste
social status or position conferred by a system based on class
socioeconomic status
A person's position in society as determined by income, wealth, occupation, education, place of residence, and other factors
Class Consciousness
A belief that you are a member of an economic group whose interests are opposed to people in other such groups
Life Chances
A term introduced by Max Weber to signify a person's opportunities for achieving economic prosperity.
Horizontal mobility
the movement of an individual from one social position to another of the same rank
Structural mobility
Mobility resulting from changes in the number and kinds of jobs available in a society.
Colonialism
The process whereby Western nations established their rule in parts of the world away from their home territories.
Neocolonialism
control by a powerful country of its former colonies (or other less developed countries) by economic pressures
World Systems
Theory stresses that the this system (and not nation states) should be the basic unit of social analysis.
Race
Differences in human physical characteristics used to categorize large numbers of individuals.
Ethnicity
Identity with a group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and cultural traditions.
Prejudice
a partiality that prevents objective consideration of an issue or situation
Racism
discriminatory or abusive behavior towards members of another race
Institutional Discrimination
The denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups that results from the normal operations of a society.
Assimilation
Forms of thought and/or practice that seek to confront, eradicate and/or ameliorate racism.
Racial Profiling
singling out an individual as a suspect due to appearance of ethnicity
Discrimination
Behavior that denies to the members of a particular group resources or rewards that can be obtained by others.
Affirmative Action
programs intended to make up for past discrimination by helping minority groups and women gain access to jobs and opportunities
Stereotypes
fixed and inflexible categories.
Gender
Socially formed traits of masculinity and femininity.
Patriarchy
The dominance of men over women.
Pink-collar" work
feminine jobs like nurses, secretaries, stenographers, waitresses
Glass Ceiling
A promotion barrier that prevents a woman's upward mobility within an organization.
Family
A group of individuals related to one another by blood ties, marriage, or adoption, who form an economic unit, the adult members of which are responsible for the upbringing of children.
Kinship
A relation that links individuals through blood ties, marriage, or adoption.
Marriage
A socially approved sexual relationship between two individuals.
Matriarchal
relating to a social system in which the mother is head of the family
Serial monogamy
a succession of short monogamous relationships (as by someone who undergoes multiple divorces)
Homogamy
tendency for individuals to marry people who have social characteristics similar to their own
Religion
A set of beliefs adhered to by the members of a community, incorporating symbols regarded with a sense of awe or wonder together with ritual practices.
The Sacred
Describing something that inspires attitudes of awe or reverence among believers in a given set of religious ideas.
Cults
Fragmentary religious groupings to which individuals are loosely affiliated, but which lack any permanent structure.
Education
knowledge acquired by learning and instruction
Schooling
formal instruction under the direction of specially trained teachers
Economy
The system of production and exchange that provides for the material needs of individuals living in a given society
Industrial Society
a society that depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services
Postindustrial Economy
a productive system based on service work and high technology
Capitalism
An economic system based on the private ownership of wealth, which is invested and reinvested in order to produce profit.
Politics
The means by which power is employed to influence the nature and content of governmental activities.
Power
The ability of individuals or the members of a group to achieve aims or further the interests they hold.
Authority
A government's legitimate use of power.
Rational-legal Authority
power made legitimate by law
Demography
the branch of sociology that studies the characteristics of human populations
Fertility
The average number of live-born children produced by women of childbearing age in a particular society.
Fecundity
A measure of the number of children that it is biologically possible for a woman to produce.
Sex Ratio
The number of males per 100 females in the population.
Malthusian theory
population increase comes up against "natural limits," represented by famine and war.
Social movement
a group of people with a common ideology who try together to achieve certain general goals
Diffusion
the spread of social institutions (and myths and skills) from one society to another
Relative deprivation
the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself
Gesellschaft
Social relations based on impersonal ties, as duty to a society or organization; society
Organic solidarity
social interdependency based on a high degree of specialization in roles
Cultural lag
the fact that some cultural elements change more quickly than others, disrupting a cultural system
Modernity
social patterns resulting from industrialization