sociology vs. psychology
: psychologist might try to explain behavior by examining the personality traits of individuals, a sociologist would examine the positions of different people within the group and how these positions influence what people do.
dyads
the smallest units sociologists study; two person interactions
sociology vs. common sense
difference is sociologists use scientific methods to test the accuracy of common sense beliefs and ideas about human behavior and the social world
sociological imagination
connecting events from the global and national levels to the personal and intimate level of our own lives
social world model
helps us picture the levels of analysis in our social surroundings as an interconnected series of small groups, organizations, institutions, and societies. PAGE 18
social structure
social world model made up of a number of parts that combine to form the social structure, like a framework that holds societies together
social units
interconnected parts of the social world, range from interaction in dyads and small groups to large-scale actions such as negotiating between countries or wars between societies
social institutions
the largest units that make up every society- family, education, religion, politics, economics, science, sports, healthcare, and the military
social processes
the actions taken by people in social units
environment
includes everything that influences the social unit, such as its physical and organizational surroundings and technological innovations
level analysis
each of these social units from the smallest to the largest
underlying ideas in sociology
�People are social
They live and carry out activities largely in groups
�Interaction influences both individual and group behavior
�people share common behavior patterns and expectations
�processes such as change and conflict are always present
SOCIOLOGY CAREERS
�professors: classroom time, preparing for classes, preparing and grading exams and assignments, advising students, serving on committees, keeping abreast of new research in the field and conducting research studies and having them published
�business: us
structure of society and level of analysis
� micro-level analysis: a focus on small group interaction. This level is important because face to face interaction forms the basic foundation of all social groups and organizations to which we belong, from families to corporations to societies
� meso-le
operationalizing variables
the process of determining how to measures concepts
existing sources
� Existing sources: refer to data that already exist but are being employed in a new way to understand a new relationship
o Secondary analysis: uses existing data, information that has already been collected in other studies
o Content analysis: involves s
triangulation
multiple methods of research, combines two or more methods of data collection to enhance the amount of data for analysis and the accuracy of the findings
core ideas of the scientific approach
1. There is a real physical and social world that can be studied scientifically
2. There is a certain order to the world, with identifiable patterns that result from a series of causes and effects - the world is not merely a collection of unrelated random
how sociologists study the social world
A. Planning a research study
a. Step one: define a topic or problem that can be investigated scientifically
b. Step 2: review existing relevant research studies and theory to refine the topic and define variables
c. Step 3: formulate hypotheses or researc
planning a research study involves four main steps
1. Define the topic or problem clearly
2. Find out what is already known about the topic
3. Formulate hypotheses
4. Develop clear definitions of variables and ways to measure them
how variables can be related
� Correlation: refers to a relationship between variables in which a change in one variable is associated with change in another
� Cause and effect relationships: helps establish the relationship between the two variables (does one cause the other?)
� Spu
survey method
used when sociologists want to gather information directly from a number of people regarding how they think or feel or what they do
o Interviews: conducted by talking directly with people and asking questions in person or by telephone
o Questionnaires: wr
field studies
used when systematic, planned observation of interaction is needed to obtain data
o Observation: the systematic viewing and recording of behavior or interaction in the settings where the behavior takes place
Non participant observation: research is not in
controlled experiments
researchers manipulate the main variable being studied to determine the social consequences of a change in that variable. All varailes except the one being studied are held constant
four core features of science
1. A commitment to empirically validated evidence, facts, and information that are confirmed through systematic processes of testing using the five sense
2. A focus on being convinced by the evidence rather than by our preconceived ideas
3. Absolute integ
3 sociological traditions
1. Scientific sociology: strongly influenced by Emile Durkheim, Auguste Comte, and other early sociologists. The thrust is on objectivity and on modeling the discipline after the natural sciences
2. Humanistic sociology: this tradition puts much more emph
micro to meso level theories
� Symbolic interaction theory: considers how people create shared meanings regarding symbols and events and then interact on the basis of those meanings
� Rational choice (exchange) theory: assume that people chart a course of action on the basis of ratio
meso and macro level theories
� Structural functional theory: assumes that all parts of the social structure, the culture, and social processes work together to make the whole society run smoothly and harmoniously
o Manifest functions: the planned outcomes of interactions, social orga
mechanical solidarity
common beliefs, values, and emotional ties
organic solidarity
holds together societies in which social positions are specialized and interdependent
ethnocentrism
the tendency to view one's own group and its cultural expectations as right, proper, and superior to others
cultural relativism
a view that requires setting aside cultural and personal beliefs and prejudices to understand another group or society through the eyes of members of that group.
sanctions
reinforce norms through rewards and penalties
o Formal sanctions: to enforce the most important norms are implemented by official action
o Informal sanctions: unofficial rewards or punishments. Ex: word of praise, gossip or ostracism
different types of societies
� Hunter Gatherer Societies: people rely directly on plants and animals in their habitat to live
� Herding and Horticultural societies:
o Herding: have food producing strategies based on keeping herds of domesticated animals, whose care is the central foc
Language: the foundation of every culture
� Types:
1. Spoken: allows individuals to produce a set of sounds that symbolize an object or idea
2. Written: enables humans to store ideas for future generations, accelerating the accumulation of ideas on which to build
3. Nonverbal: is communication co
MICROCULTURES: MICRO LEVEL ANALYSIS
� Focuses on social interactions in small group or organizational settings
� Microculture: when the culture affects only a small segment of one's life - affecting a portion of one's week or influencing a limited time period in one's life
� Every organizat
SUB CULTURES AND COUNTER CULTURES: MESO LEVEL ANALYSIS
� Subculture: a way of life in a social unit or group that is smaller than the nation but large enough to sustain people throughout the lifespan
o African Canadian, Chinese Canadian, or Hispanic Canadian
o Ethnic groups, exclusive religious groups such as
NATIONAL AND GLOBAL CULTURE: MACRO LEVEL ANALSYSI
� National society and culture
o National society: made up of a group of people who interact more with each other than with outsiders and who cooperate for the attainment of certain goals
o National culture: common values and beliefs that tie citizens tog
cultural theories
� Micro level
o Symbolic interaction theory: considers how we learn to share the meanings of symbols, whether material or non-material. Maintains that our humanness comes from the impact we have on each other through these shared understandings of symbols
socialization
the lifelong process of learning to become a member of the social world
resocialization
the process of shedding one or more positions and taking on others
total institution
resocialization may take play here; a group of people are bureaucratically processed, physically isolated from the outside world, and schedules for all activities
agents of socialization
transmitters of culture, the people, organizations, and institutions that teach us how to thrive in our social world
o Formal agents: socialization is the stated goal.
o Informal agents: do not have the express purpose of socialization, but the function a
transnationalism
involves an individual or a family that has national loyalty to more than one country
NATURE VS NURTURE
� Nature
o Claim the our human genetic makeup wires us for social behaviors
o Sociobiologists: believe that we perpetuate our own biological family lines and the human species through various social behaviors
o Reductionist theory: too often reduces compl
importance of socialization
� Longer the period of gestation and of nutritional and social dependence on the mother and family, the more intelligent the species generally speaking
� Long childhood: extended dependency period for humans; allows each human to being time to learn compl
development of the self: micro level analysis
� Self: perceptions we have of who we are
� Looking glass self: cooley; a reflective process based on our interperetations of the reacions of others. In this process, cooley believe that there are 3 principle elements
o We imagine how we appear to other
o