sociological perspective
understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader social context
society
people who share a culture and a territory
social location
the group memberships that people have because of their location in history and society
natural sciences
the intellectual and academic disciplines designed to comprehend, explain, and predict events in our natural environments
social sciences
the intellectual and academic disciplines designed to understand the social world objectively by means of controlled and repeated observations
generalization
a statement that goes beyond the individual case and is applied to a broader group or situation
common sense
those things that "everyone knows" are true
Auguste Comte
the father of sociology. began to analyze the bases of the social order; stressed that the scientific method should be applied to the study of society, he did not apply it himself
sociology
the scientific study of society and human behavior
positivism
the application of the scientific approach to the social world
Herbert Spencer
sometimes called the second founder of sociology, coined the term "survival of the fittest"; he thought that helping the poor was wrong, that this merely helped the "less fit" survive.
class conflict
Marx' term for the struggle between capitalists and workers
bourgeoisie
Marx' term for capitalists; those who own the means of production
proletariat
Marx' term for the exploited class, the mass of workers who do not own the means of production
Emile Durkheim
contributed many important concepts to sociology. His comparison of the suicide rates of several countries revealed an underlying social factor; people are more likely to commit suicide if their ties to others in their communities are weak. His identifica
social integration
the degree to which members of a group or society feel united by shared values and other social bonds
key Durkheim principle
Human behavior cannot be understood only in terms of the individual; we must always examine the social forces that affect people's lives.
Max Weber
used cross-cultural and historical materials to trace the causes of social change and to determine how social groups affect people's orientations to life.
Protestant ethic
a self-denying approach to life; financial success was the blessing that indicated God was on one's side.
The Spirit of Capitalism
readiness to invest capital in order to make more money
value-free
the view that a sociologist's personal values or biases should not influence social research
values
the standards by which people define what is desirable or undesirable; good or bad; beautiful or ugly.
objectivity
value neutrality in research
replication
the repetition of a study in order to test its findings
Verstehen
a German word used by Weber that is perhaps best understood as "to have insight into someone's situation
subjective meanings
the meanings that people give their own behavior
social facts
Durkheim's term for a group's patterns of behavior
W.E.B. DuBois
spent his lifetime studying relations between African Americans and whites. Like many early North American sociologists, he combined the role of academic sociologist with that of social reformer. He was also the editor of Crisis, and influential journal o
Jane Addams
a recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize, worked on behalf of poor immigrants. With Ellen G. Starr, she founded Hull House, a center to help immigrants in Chicago. She was also a leader in women's rights as well as the peace movement of World War I.
Harriet Martineau
early feminist; translated Comte's works into English.
C. Wright Mills
a controversial figure in sociology because of his analysis of the role of the power elite in US society. Today, his analysis is taken for granted by many sociologists and members of the public.
Power elite
the top leaders of business, politics, and the military
basic (pure) sociology
sociological research for the purpose of making discoveries about life in human groups, not for making changes in those groups.
applied sociology
the use of sociology to solve problems--from the micro level of family relationships to the macro level of global pollution
symbolic interactionism
a theoretical perspective in which society is views as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another
George Herbert Mead
one of the founders of symbolic interactionism.
functional analysis (aka functionalism/structured functionalism)
a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of various parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society's equilibrium (aka functionalism/structured functionalism)
Robert K Merton
major proponent of functionalism.
functions
beneficial consequences of people's actions
dysfunctions
consequences that harm a society and undermine a system's equilibrium
manifest function
an action intended to help some part of a system
latent function
unintended consequences of actions
latent dysfunctions
unintended consequences that harm society.
conflict theory
a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups that are competing for scare resources
macro-level analysis
an examination of large-scale patterns of society
micro-level analysis
an examination of small-scale patterns of society
social interaction
what people do when they are in one another's presence
nonverbal interaction
communication without words, through gestures, use of space, silence, and so on
public sociology
sociology being used for the public good; especially the sociological perspective guiding politicians and policy makers
globalization
the extensive interconnections among nations, due to the expansion of capitalism
globalization of capitalism
capitalism becoming the globe's dominant economic system
culture
the language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and even material objects that characterize a group and are passed from one generation to the next
material culture
the material objects that distinguish a group of people, such as their art, buildings, weapons, utensils, machinery, hairstyles, clothing, and jewelry
nonmaterial (symbolic) culture
a group's way of thinking and doing
culture shock
the disorientation people experience when they come in contact with a fundamentally different culture and can no longer depend on their taken-for-granted assumptions about life.
ethnocentrism
the use of one's own culture as a yardstick for judging the ways of other individuals or societies, generally leading to a negative evaluation of their values, norms, and behaviors.
cultural relativism
not judging a culture, but trying to understand it on its own terms
symbol
something to which people attach meanings and then use to communicate with others
gestures
the ways in which people use their bodies to communicate with one another.
language
a system of symbols that can be combined in an infinite number of ways and can represent not only objects but also abstract thought.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
it is our language that determines our consciousness and hence our perception of objects and events
norms
expectations or rules of behavior that reflect and enforce behavior
sanctions
either expressions of approval given to people for upholding norms or expressions of disapproval for violating them
folkways
norms that are not strictly enforced
mores
norms that are strictly enforced because they are thought essential to core values or to the well-being of the group
taboo
a norm so strong that it brings extreme sanctions and even revulsion if someone violates it
subculture
the values and related behaviors of a group that distinguish its members from the larger culture; a world within a world
counterculture
a group whose values, beliefs, norms, and related behaviors place its members in opposition to the broader culture
pluralistic society
a society made up of many different groups with contrasting values and orientations to life.
value cluster
values that together form a larger whole
value contradiction
values that contradict one another, to follow the one means to come into conflict with the other.
ideal culture
a people's ideal values and norms; the goals held out for them.
real culture
the norms and values that people actually follow
cultural universal
a value, norm, or other cultural trait that is found in every group.
sociobiology
a framework of thought that views human behavior as the result of natural selection and considers biological factors to be the fundamental cause of human behavior.
technology
in its narrow sense, tools; in its broader sense includes the skills or procedures necessary to make and use those tools.
new technology
the emerging technologies of an era that have a significant impact on social life
cultural lag
Ogburn's term for human behavior lagging behind technological innovations.
cultural diffusion
the spread of cultural traits from one group to another; includes both material and nonmaterial cultural traits.
cultural leveling
the process by which cultures become similar to one another; refers especially to the process by which Western culture is being exported and diffused into other nations
social environment
the entire human environment, including direct contact with others
feral children
children assumed to have been raised by animals, in the wilderness, isolated from humans
socialization
the process by which people learn the characteristics of their group--the knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, norms, and actions thought appropriate for them
self
the unique human capacity of being able to see ourselves "from the outside"' the views we internalize of how others see us.
looking-glass self
a term coined by Charles Horton Cooley to refer to the process by which our self develops through internalizing others' reactions to us.
taking the role of the other
putting oneself in someone else's shoes; understanding how someone else thinks and thus anticipating how that person will act.
significant other
an individual who significantly influences someone else's life
generalized other
the norms, values, attitudes, and expectations of people "in general"; the child's ability to take the role of the generalized other is a significant step in the development of self
imitation
Mead's first level in taking on the role of others; we can only mimic
play
Mead's second level in taking on the role of others; we pretend to take the roles of specific people
team games
Mead's third level in taking on the role of others; we learn to take on multiple roles
sensorimotor stage
Piaget's first stage of development; our understanding is limited to direct contact
Preoperational stage
Piaget's second stage of development; we develop the ability to use symbols
Concrete Operational stage
Piaget's third stage of development; we can now understand numbers, size, causation, and speed and we are able to take the role of others
Formal Operational stage
Piaget's fourth stage of development; we are capable of abstract thought.
id
Freud's term for inborn basic drives
ego
Freud's term for a balancing force between the id and the demands of society
superego
Freud's term for the conscience, the internalized norms and values of our society
Lawrence Kohlberg
Moral Development: amoral, preconventional, conventional, postconventional
amoral stage
no right or wrong
preconventional stage
follow rules to stay out of trouble
conventional stage
follow rules because it's the right thing to do
postconventional stage
abstract principles of morality and judge people's behavior accordingly
American values
Achievement & success; individualism, hard work, efficiency & practicality; material comfort; freedom; democracy, equality; group superiority; education, religiousity, romantic love
gender
the behaviors and attitudes that a society considers proper for its males and females; masculinity or femininity
gender socialization
the ways in which society sets children on different paths in life because they are male or female
peer group
a group of individuals of roughly the same age who are linked by common interests
mass media
forms of communication, such as radio, newspapers, television, and blogs that are directed to mass audiences
gender role
the behaviors and attitudes expected of people because they are female or male
social inequality
a social condition in which privileges and obligations are given to some but denied to others
agents of socialization
individuals or groups that affect our self-concept, attitudes, behaviors, or other orientations toward life
resocialization
the process of learning new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors
total institution
a place that is almost totally controlled by those who run it, which people are cut off from the rest of society and the society is mostly cut off from them.
degradation ceremony
a term coined by Garfinkle to refer to a ritual whose goal is to strip away someone's position (social status); in doing so, a new social and self-identity is stamped on the individual
life course
the stages of our life as we go from birth to death
transitional adulthood
a period following high school when young adults have not yet taken on the responsibilities ordinarily associated with adulthood
macrosociology
analysis of social life that focuses on broad features such as social class and the relationships of groups to one another; usually used by functionalists and conflict theory
microsociology
analysis of social life that focuses on social interaction; typically used by symbolic interactionists
social structure
the framework that surrounds us, consisting of the relationships of people and groups to one another, which gives direction to and sets limits on behavior
social class
Weber: a large group of people who rank close to one another in property, power, and prestige. Marx: one of 2 groups: capitalists/workers
status
the position that someone occupies in a social group
status set
all the statuses or positions that an individual occupies
ascribed status
a position an individual either inherits at birth or receives involuntarily later in life
achieved status
a position that is earned, accomplished, or involves at least some effort or activity on the individual's part
status symbols
items used to identify status
master status
a status that cuts across the other statuses and and individual occupies
status inconsistency
ranking high on some dimensions of social class and low on other
role
the behaviors, obligations, and privileges attached to a status
group
people who have something in common and who believe that what they have in common is significant (aka social group)
social institution
the organized, usual, or standard ways by which society meets its basic needs
mechanical solidarity
Durkheim's term for the unity that people feel as a result of performing the same or similar tasks
organic solidarity
Durkheim's term for the interdependence that results from the division of labor; people depending on others to fulfill their jobs
division of labor
the splitting of a group's or a society's tasks into specialities
Gemeinschaft
a type of society in which life is intimate; a community in which everyone knows everyone else and people share a sense of togetherness
Gesellschaft
a type of society that is dominated by impersonal relationships, individual accomplishments and self-interest
stereotype
assumptions of what people are like, whether true or false
body language
the ways in which people use their bodies to give messages to others
dramaturgy
an approach, pioneered by Goffman, in which social life is analyzed in terms of drama or the stage
impression management
people's efforts to control the impressions that others receive of them.
front stage
places where we give performances
back stage
places where people rest from their performances, discussion their presentations, and plan future performances
role performance
the ways in which someone performs a role within the limits that the role provides; showing a particular "style" or "personality
role conflict
conflicts that someone feels between roles because the expectations attached to one role are incompatible with the expectations of another role
role strain
conflicts that someone feels within a role
sign-vehicles
a term used by Goffman to refer to how people use social setting, appearance, and manner to communicate information about the self
teamwork
the collaboration of two or more people to manage impressions jointly
face-saving behavior
techniques used to salvage a performance that is going sour
ethnomethodology
the study of how people use background assumptions to make sense out of life
background assumption
a deeply embedded common understanding of how the world operates and how people ought to act
Thomas Theorem
the definition of the situation: "if people define situations as real they are real in their consequences
social construction of reality
use of background assumptions and life experiences to define what is real
science
the application of systematic methods to obtain knowledge and the knowledge obtained by those methods
manifest dysfunction
intended harmful consequence to society