Sociology, Chapter 10

Objectification

the process whereby some people treat other individuals as if they were objects or things, not human beings

gender

the distinctive qualities of men and women that are culturally created

sex

the biological and anatomical differences between males and females

primary sex characteristics

the genitalia used in the reproductive process

secondary sex characteristics

the physical traits that identify an individual's sex

hermaphrodite

a person in whom sexual differentiation is ambiguous or incomplete

transsexual

a person in whom the sex-related structures of the brain that define gender identity are opposite from the physical sex organs of the person's body

berdaches

biological males who behave, dress, work, and are treated in most respects as women

transvestite

a male who lives as a women or a female who lives as a man but does not alter the genitalia

sexual orientation

an individual's preference for emotional-sexual relationships with members of the opposite sex, the same sex, or both

gay

males who prefer same-sex relationships

lesbian

females who prefer same-sex relationships

bisexual

the term used to describe a person's physical or romantic attraction to both males and females

transgender

a term applied to persons whose appearance, behavior, and/or gender identity does not match that individual's assigned sex

What are the three criteria for identifying people as homosexual or bisexual?

sexual attraction, sexual involvement, self-identification

homophobia

extreme prejudice and sometimes discriminatory actions directed at gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and others who are perceived as not being heterosexual

heterosexism

an ideological system that denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes any nonheterosexual form of behavior, identity, relationship, or community

gender role

the attitudes, behavior, and activities that are socially defined as appropriate for each sex and are learned through the socialization process

gender identity

a person's perception of the self as female or male

body consciousness

how a person perceives and feels about his or her body; includes an awareness of social conditions in society that contribute to this self-knowledge

gender belief system

all the ideas regarding masculine and feminine attributes that are held to be valid in a society

anorexia

a person who has lost at least 25 pounds of body weight due to a compulsive fear of becoming fat

bulimia

a person binges by consuming large quantities of food and then purges the food by induced vomiting, excessive exercise, laxatives, or fasting

obesity

individuals who are 20 percent or more above their desirable weight, as established by the medical profession

bodybuilding

the process of deliberately cultivating an increase in the mass and strength of the skeletal muscles by means of lifting and pushing weights

sexism

the subordination of one sex, usually female, based on the assumed superiority of the other sex

What are the three components of sexism directed towards women?

negative attitudes toward women; stereotypical beliefs that reinforce, complement, or justify the prejudice; discrimination

patriarchy

a hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by men

matriarchy

a hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by women

What are the three factors important in determining the gendered division of labor in a society?

the type of subsistence base, the supply and demand for labor, and the extent to which women's child-rearing activities are compatible with certain types of work

Subsistence

the means by which a society gains the basic necessities of life, including food, shelter, and clothing

technoeconomic base

the level of technology and the organization of the economy in a given society

What are the five technoeconomic bases?

hunting and gathering societies, horticultural and pastoral societies, agrarian societies, industrial societies, and postindustrial societies

What are the economic characteristics of a horticultural and pastoral society? Who controls the surplus? What is women's status?

planting crops, domestication of animals for food; men begin to control societies; decreasing in move to pastoralism

What are the economic characteristics of an agrarian society? Who controls the surplus? What is women's status?

labor-intensive farming; men who own land or herds; low

What are the economic characteristics of an industrial society? Who controls the surplus? What is women's status?

mechanized production of goods; men who own means of production; low

What are the economic characteristics of a hunting and gathering society? Who controls the surplus? What is women's status?

hunting game, gathering roots and berries; none; relative equality

What are the economic characteristics of a postindustrial society? Who controls the surplus? What is women's status?

information and service economy; corporate shareholders and high-tech entrepreneurs; varies by class, race, and age

pastoralism

the domestication of large animals to provide food

Industrial society

society in which factory or mechanized production has replaced agriculture as the major form of economic activity

postindustrial society

society in which technology supports a service- and information-based economy

gender bias

showing favoritism toward one gender over the other

How are girls' self-esteem undermined in school through gender bias? (4)

a relative lack of attention from teachers; sexual harassment by male peers; the stereotyping and invisibility of females in textbooks; test bias based on assumptions about the relative importance of quantitative and visual-spatial ability, as compared wi

Gender-segregated work

the concentration of women and men in different occupations, jobs, and places of work

Labor market segmentation

the division of jobs into categories with distinct working conditions

pay gap

the disparity between women's and men's earnings

Comparable worth, aka?

pay equity; the belief that wages ought to reflect the worth of a job, not the gender or race of the worker

What is the functionalist focus on gender stratification? Theory/hypothesis? (2)

macrolevel analysis of women's and men's roles; traditional gender roles ensure that expressive and instrumental tasks will be performed; human capital model

What is the conflict theorist focus on gender stratification? Theory/hypothesis?

power and economic differentials between men and women; unequal political and economic power heightens gender-based social inequalities

What is the feminist focus on gender stratification? Theory/hypothesis? (4)

feminism should be embraced to reduce sexism and gender inequality; liberal, radical, socialist, multicultural

Human Capital Model

individuals vary widely in the amount of human capital they bring to the labor market

Human Capital

acquired by education and job training; the source of a person's productivity and can be measured in terms of the return on the investment and the cost

What are the two ways wage discrimination occurs?

the wages are higher in male-dominated jobs, occupation, and segments of the labor market, regardless of whether women take in time for family duties; in any job, women and people of color will be paid less

feminism

the belief that women and men are equal and should be valued equally and have equal rights

Liberal feminism

gender equality is equated with equality of opportunity; the roots of women's oppression lie in women's lack of equal civil rights and educational opportunities

Radical feminism

male domination causes all forms of human oppression, including racism and classism; roots of patriarchy are traced to women's childbearing and child-rearing responsibilities, which make them dependent on men

Socialist Feminism

women's oppression results from their dual roles as paid and unpaid workers in a capitalist economy

What are the agents of gender socialization?

parents, peers, teachers and schools, sports, media

How do functionalists view the division of labor by gender?

women's roles as caregivers in contemporary industrialized societies are crucial in ensuring that key societal tasks are fulfilled

How do conflict theorists view the division of labor by gender?

the gendered division of labor within families and the workplace-particularly in agrarian and industrial societies-results from male control and dominance over women and resources