Objectification
the process whereby some people treat other individuals as if they were objects or things, not human beings
gender
the distinctive qualities of men and women that are culturally created
sex
the biological and anatomical differences between males and females
primary sex characteristics
the genitalia used in the reproductive process
secondary sex characteristics
the physical traits that identify an individual's sex
hermaphrodite
a person in whom sexual differentiation is ambiguous or incomplete
transsexual
a person in whom the sex-related structures of the brain that define gender identity are opposite from the physical sex organs of the person's body
berdaches
biological males who behave, dress, work, and are treated in most respects as women
transvestite
a male who lives as a women or a female who lives as a man but does not alter the genitalia
sexual orientation
an individual's preference for emotional-sexual relationships with members of the opposite sex, the same sex, or both
gay
males who prefer same-sex relationships
lesbian
females who prefer same-sex relationships
bisexual
the term used to describe a person's physical or romantic attraction to both males and females
transgender
a term applied to persons whose appearance, behavior, and/or gender identity does not match that individual's assigned sex
What are the three criteria for identifying people as homosexual or bisexual?
sexual attraction, sexual involvement, self-identification
homophobia
extreme prejudice and sometimes discriminatory actions directed at gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and others who are perceived as not being heterosexual
heterosexism
an ideological system that denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes any nonheterosexual form of behavior, identity, relationship, or community
gender role
the attitudes, behavior, and activities that are socially defined as appropriate for each sex and are learned through the socialization process
gender identity
a person's perception of the self as female or male
body consciousness
how a person perceives and feels about his or her body; includes an awareness of social conditions in society that contribute to this self-knowledge
gender belief system
all the ideas regarding masculine and feminine attributes that are held to be valid in a society
anorexia
a person who has lost at least 25 pounds of body weight due to a compulsive fear of becoming fat
bulimia
a person binges by consuming large quantities of food and then purges the food by induced vomiting, excessive exercise, laxatives, or fasting
obesity
individuals who are 20 percent or more above their desirable weight, as established by the medical profession
bodybuilding
the process of deliberately cultivating an increase in the mass and strength of the skeletal muscles by means of lifting and pushing weights
sexism
the subordination of one sex, usually female, based on the assumed superiority of the other sex
What are the three components of sexism directed towards women?
negative attitudes toward women; stereotypical beliefs that reinforce, complement, or justify the prejudice; discrimination
patriarchy
a hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by men
matriarchy
a hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by women
What are the three factors important in determining the gendered division of labor in a society?
the type of subsistence base, the supply and demand for labor, and the extent to which women's child-rearing activities are compatible with certain types of work
Subsistence
the means by which a society gains the basic necessities of life, including food, shelter, and clothing
technoeconomic base
the level of technology and the organization of the economy in a given society
What are the five technoeconomic bases?
hunting and gathering societies, horticultural and pastoral societies, agrarian societies, industrial societies, and postindustrial societies
What are the economic characteristics of a horticultural and pastoral society? Who controls the surplus? What is women's status?
planting crops, domestication of animals for food; men begin to control societies; decreasing in move to pastoralism
What are the economic characteristics of an agrarian society? Who controls the surplus? What is women's status?
labor-intensive farming; men who own land or herds; low
What are the economic characteristics of an industrial society? Who controls the surplus? What is women's status?
mechanized production of goods; men who own means of production; low
What are the economic characteristics of a hunting and gathering society? Who controls the surplus? What is women's status?
hunting game, gathering roots and berries; none; relative equality
What are the economic characteristics of a postindustrial society? Who controls the surplus? What is women's status?
information and service economy; corporate shareholders and high-tech entrepreneurs; varies by class, race, and age
pastoralism
the domestication of large animals to provide food
Industrial society
society in which factory or mechanized production has replaced agriculture as the major form of economic activity
postindustrial society
society in which technology supports a service- and information-based economy
gender bias
showing favoritism toward one gender over the other
How are girls' self-esteem undermined in school through gender bias? (4)
a relative lack of attention from teachers; sexual harassment by male peers; the stereotyping and invisibility of females in textbooks; test bias based on assumptions about the relative importance of quantitative and visual-spatial ability, as compared wi
Gender-segregated work
the concentration of women and men in different occupations, jobs, and places of work
Labor market segmentation
the division of jobs into categories with distinct working conditions
pay gap
the disparity between women's and men's earnings
Comparable worth, aka?
pay equity; the belief that wages ought to reflect the worth of a job, not the gender or race of the worker
What is the functionalist focus on gender stratification? Theory/hypothesis? (2)
macrolevel analysis of women's and men's roles; traditional gender roles ensure that expressive and instrumental tasks will be performed; human capital model
What is the conflict theorist focus on gender stratification? Theory/hypothesis?
power and economic differentials between men and women; unequal political and economic power heightens gender-based social inequalities
What is the feminist focus on gender stratification? Theory/hypothesis? (4)
feminism should be embraced to reduce sexism and gender inequality; liberal, radical, socialist, multicultural
Human Capital Model
individuals vary widely in the amount of human capital they bring to the labor market
Human Capital
acquired by education and job training; the source of a person's productivity and can be measured in terms of the return on the investment and the cost
What are the two ways wage discrimination occurs?
the wages are higher in male-dominated jobs, occupation, and segments of the labor market, regardless of whether women take in time for family duties; in any job, women and people of color will be paid less
feminism
the belief that women and men are equal and should be valued equally and have equal rights
Liberal feminism
gender equality is equated with equality of opportunity; the roots of women's oppression lie in women's lack of equal civil rights and educational opportunities
Radical feminism
male domination causes all forms of human oppression, including racism and classism; roots of patriarchy are traced to women's childbearing and child-rearing responsibilities, which make them dependent on men
Socialist Feminism
women's oppression results from their dual roles as paid and unpaid workers in a capitalist economy
What are the agents of gender socialization?
parents, peers, teachers and schools, sports, media
How do functionalists view the division of labor by gender?
women's roles as caregivers in contemporary industrialized societies are crucial in ensuring that key societal tasks are fulfilled
How do conflict theorists view the division of labor by gender?
the gendered division of labor within families and the workplace-particularly in agrarian and industrial societies-results from male control and dominance over women and resources