Sociology emerged from a 3 stage historical development
� Theological stage (expression of God's will)
� Metaphysical stage (reflection of natural world)
� Scientific Stage (operation of laws)
o Positivism: a way of understanding based on science. Some sociologists question whether we can truly be scientific.
The Sociological Perspective
understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader social context.
� Peter Berger (1963) described the sociological perspective as seeing the general in the particular
o Sociology helps us see general patterns in the behaviors of particular peo
The Sociological Imagination
� Brings people together to create change by transforming personal troubles into public issues.
Global Awareness
� Thinking globally helps us realize how good/bad we have it
� In an increasingly interconnected world, we can understand ourselves to the extent that we understand others.
Types of knowledge
� Faith
� Expertise
� Experiences/Common Sense
o Science
o A logical system that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observation (Macionis 2010: 29)
o Scientific knowledge rests on empirical evidence or information that can be verified with the senses
Inductive logic
This is the process of making a generalization based on a specific observation.
Deductive Logic
Type of reasoning that transforms general theory into hypotheses suitable for testing.
Theory
A system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations.
o "A statement of how and why specific facts are related" (Macionis 2010: 13).
Structural Functionalist
A framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability (Why does society work?) (Auguste Comte)
Social Structure
Any relatively stable pattern of social behavior
Social Function
The consequences of a social pattern for the operation of society as a whole
Manifest Function
The recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern
Latent Function
The unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern
Dysfunction
Any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society
Social Conflict
A framework for building theory that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change
Symbolic Interaction
A framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals
Cause and Effect
a relationship in which change in one concept/variable causes change in another.
Spurious Correlation
an apparent but false relationship between two (or more) variables that is caused by some other variable.
Concept
a mental construct that represents some part of the world in a simplified form" (Macionis 2010: 31)
Variable
an empirical instantiation of "a concept whose value changes from case to case" (Macionis 2010: 31)
Independent Variable
(X): the variable that causes the change
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory. A statement of how two or more variables are supposed to be related (usually an if-then statement)
Measurement
a procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case
Operationalization
specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning a value to a variable
Reliability
Consistency in measurement
Valid
actually measuring exactly what you intended to measure
Experimental Research
o a research method where the researcher intentionally manipulates a variable to discover its effect on another variable, controlling for all other variables.
Control: holding constant all variables except one in order to see clearly the effect of that va
Survey Research
o a research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions on a questionnaire or in an interview.
Questionnaire: series of written questions a researcher presents to subjects
Interview: a series of questions a researcher asks res
Observational Research
o : a research method where the researcher focuses on a particular social situation and records the characteristics and activities that can be observed by a group of people or a social process.
Participant Observation: a research method in which investiga
Hawthorne effect
A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied
Archival Research
o Archival Data: ongoing and continuous records of a society.
Steps to research process
Select a Topic, Literature Review, Define the Problem (state research questions and hypotheses), Choose a Method, Constraints (Ethical and Practical), Data Collection, Analyze the Results, State Conclusions, Share the Results.
Meir and Allen's Survey research example
adolescent relationship progression provides a great example of how sociological research is done
Limitations on scientific Sociology
1. Human behavior is too complex.
2. Human behavior varies from one society to the next.
3. Human conduct is always changing.
4. There may be discrepancies between the external behavior of people and their states of mind.
5. Human behavior cannot be repli
Karl Marx
Society, according to Marx, comprised a moving balance of antithetical forces that generate social change because of their tension and struggle" (Coser 2004: 43).
o Conflict lies at the heart of Marx's thinking.
Weber
Weber's primary focus was on the subjective meanings that human actors attach to their actions in their mutual orientation within specific social-historical contexts" (Coser 2004: 217).
o The relationship between meaning and behavior is central.
Emile Durkheim
Fought against reductionism by claiming that social phenomena existed sui generis.
o Focused on the relationship between social structure and human social problems.
Karl Marx Ideology
Unequal distribution of factors of production
Materialist
(one who believes that how a society produces material goods defines the all social system)
Exploitation of Workers
Not compensating workers for the value of their productive labor
Alienation
the experience of isolation and misery resulting from powerlessnes.
Four ways capitalist alienates the workers
Alienation from the act of working
o Workers don't choose what they make
Alienation from the products of work
o Product of work belongs to capitalists, not workers
Alienation from other workers
o Work becomes competitive (Burawoy example)
Alienation from
Fetishism of Commodities
o the process of alienation also results in the fetishism of commodities:
workers and consumers becomes so separated from his product (or commodity) that it takes on mysterious quality
Almost as if commodities have lives of their own, appearing out of now
Max Weber (Ideas and the Rationalization of Society)
Weber examined how human ideas shape society (idealism)
o Weber's research can be classified as interpretative sociology because it emphasizes the relationship between meaning and behavior.
Weber identified four types of social actions
� Goal-oriented rational action
� Both goals and means are rationally chosen.
� Value-oriented action
� The pursuit of a goal (which may not be rationally chosen) through means that are rationally chosen.
� Emotionally motivated action
� Emotional state o
Rationalization of Society
the historical change from tradition to rationality as the main type of human thought" (Macionis 2010: 98)
The Protestant work ethic
Could work really hard, have a good family, God wouldn't elect any slouch or bum.Max Weber- why northern countries became more prosperous. The work ethic of the northern Europe men made them more successful, capitalist economy.
� To deal with not knowing,
As societies become more rational, the basis for authority changes
Authority
� Traditional
� Stems from belief in the sanctity of traditions and legitimacy of the status of those exercising authority under them
� Charismatic
� Rests on the character of the individual
� Rational
� Belief in the legality of enacted rules a
Bureaucracy
a specific kind of administrative structure that emerged in conjunction with the rational-legal mode of authority.
Durkheim Ideology
Structural functionalist. Focused on social-structural determinants of mankind's social problems
o Argued against reductionism; social phenomena could not be reduced to biological or psychological factors.
Social Fact
patterns of human behavior that exist as established structures and that have an objective reality beyond the lives of the individual
Socialization
the lifelong social experience by which people develop their human potential and learn culture.
Mechanical Solidarity
social bonds, based on common sentiments and shared moral values, that are strong among members of pre-industrial societies. (solidarity based on similarity) People are bound to one another by tradition.
Organic Solidarity
social bonds, based on specialization and interdependence that are strong among members of industrial societies. (Solidarity based on differences) integration stems from specialized abilities.
The Secularization of Society
Religion distinguishes between the sacred and the profane. Modern society, however, has seen a move away from religion and the social controls it provides.
Anomie
a condition in which society provides little moral guidance to individuals.
Egoistic or Individualistic Suicide
Individual is "detached from society;" too little social integration; not sufficiently bonded to groups (and therefore values, norms, and traditions, goals, etc.)
Altruistic Suicide
Excessive integration of individuals; self-sacrifice; an individual is so integrated into social groups they lose their individuality
Anomic Suicide
When an individual experiences anomie, or normlessness because normative regulations surrounding individual conduct are relaxed (lack of regulation).
Fatalatistic Suicide
At the high extreme of the regulation continuum; rare; not elaborated upon; e.g., overregulated, unrewarding lives such as slaves, childless married women, young husbands.
Why is crime normal?
Crime affirms cultural values and norms (no good without evil; need deviance to define normality) and reinforces moral boundaries (makes it clear what is right and wrong, acceptable and not)- deviance promotes social cohesion and social change.
Culture
The ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the material objects that together form a people's way of life" (Macionis 2010: 58).
� A second definition- the values held by the members of a given group, the languages they speak, the symbols they revere,
Nonmaterial Culture
the ideas created by members of a society
o Language- system of symbols that allow people to communicate
o Technology- knowledge that people use to make a way of life in their surroundings
E=MC^2
Material Culture
the physical things created by members of a society
o Artifacts- the range of physical human creations of a society
Artifacts reflect underlying cultural values.
Elemental of culture
Symbol, Language, Value and Beliefs, Norms, Material Culture, and Technology.
Symbols
anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture" (Macionis 2010: 62)
Body Ritual among the Nacirema
� Language
o "a system of symbols that allows people to communicate with one another" (64)
o Language is the key to culture
� Language enables
o Communication- the process of interchanging meaning
o Cultural transmission- "the process by which one generat
Sapir-Whorf Thesis
Sapir-Whorf Thesis
o People see and understand world through language. Language determines reality.
o This thesis has been called into question
Values
culturally defined standards that people use to decide what is desirable, good, and beautiful and that serve as broad guidelines for social living" (Macionis 2010: 66)
o Thinness, monogamy
Beliefs
specific thoughts or ideas that people hold to be true" (Macionis 2010: 66)
o Why are people poor?
Norms
rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members" (Macionis 2010: 67)
Mores (Taboos)
norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance.
Folkways
norms for routine or casual interaction.
Proscriptive Norms
what you should not do
Prescriptive Norms
what you should do
Social Control
attempts by society to regulate people's thoughts and behavior" (Macionis 2010: 68)
Sactions
rewards or punishments that encourage conformity to cultural norms (social control)
o Formal (laws) and informal (looks) sanctions
Shame
painful sense that others disapprove of our actions
Guilt
A negative judgment we make about ourselves.
Material Culture
The physical things created by members of a society" (60)
� Influences the ways in which people live
Artifacts
The wide range of physical human creations within a culture (68)
Technology
knowledge that people use to make a way of life in their surroundings" (Macionis 2010: 69).
Culture Shock
a personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life" (Macionis 2010: 60).
High Culture
� High Culture- cultural patterns that distinguish a society's elite
Popular Culture
cultural patterns that are widespread among a society's population.
Subculture
Cultural patterns that set apart some segment of a society's population - Subcultures imply the existence of a mainstream/dominant culture � They also imply hierarchy
Counterculture
� Cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society. � In essence, this is a subculture that actively positions itself against popular or mainstream culture. � They exist in opposition to mainstream culture.
Multiculturalism
� perspective recognizing the cultural diversity (of the United States) and promoting equal standing for all cultural traditions
Cultural Lag
The fact that some cultural elements change more quickly than others, disrupting a cultural system" (Macionis 2010: 72-73)
Cultural Changes are set in motion in three ways
Invention, Discovery, and Diffusion.
Invention
the process of creating new cultural elements that changes the way of life.
Discovery
recognizing and better understanding something already in existence
o Science, Luck
Diffusion
the spread of objects or ideas from one society to another.
You can evaluate culture in one of two ways
Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism-
Ethnocentrism
the practice of judging another culture by the standards of one's own culture.
Cultural Relativism
the practice of judging a culture by its own standards.
Milkshakes, Lady Lumps, and Growing Up to Want Boobies by Maddy Coy
Coy argues that popular culture has put forth a persistent message of sexuality that "reinforces gender inequality by designating women as sexually available and objectified, perpetuates associations of masculinity and predatory sexual prowess, and justif
Sexualization of culture
process by which sexuality has come to permeate images and behaviors in popular culture" (Andersen et al. 2013: 257).
Popular Culture today
beliefs, practices, and objects that are part of everyday traditions. (Andersen et al. 2013: 256).
Limits the women in three different ways
First, it limits space for action. Girls are expected to conform to certain sexual ideals.
Second, it limits their life, career, and self-aspirations
� 25% of 15-19 year olds in UK viewed lap dancer as an ideal profession!
Third, it limits women in their
Social Structure
Social structure is any relatively stable pattern of social behavior" (Macionis 2010: 674).-Resilient patterns that order social life (Sewell 1992)
Position
A social position that a person holds or the place a person occupies in a system of interconnected positions.
o Each position carries with it expectations about behavior
Roles
The behavioral activity associated with incumbency in a status position.
Networks
social structures are composed of networks of status positions, the roles for each status position, and the cultural systems associated with the positions in this network" (Turner 93)
Structure emerges when status positions are connected to one another
Dimensions of Positions
� The number of different types of positions in the network of status positions.
� The number of people who occupy any given position.
� The nature of the connections between positions: strongly tied or loosely tied.
Types of Social Structures
� Corporate Units:
� Categoric Structures:
� Stratification Systems:
� Institutional Systems:
� Societies:
� Inter-societal Systems:
Corporate Units
social structures that reveal a division of labor.
oThese include: Encounters, Groups, Organizations,Communities
Categoric Structures
human classifications in terms of distinguishable characteristics (gender, race, religion, etc.)
Stratification Structures
unequal distribution of resources
Institutional System
institutions are structures designed to solve human and organizational problems
Societies
consist of people who interact in a defined territory and share a culture.
Inter-societal System
social elements that reach beyond the boundaries of any given society.
The Embeddedness of Social Structure
Groups are composed of encounters iterated over time; organizations and categoric units are built from encounters and groups as they sustain the division of labor in the organization and as they reinforce categoric distinctions among individuals; and ins
Name the four types of Structure Agency
PURE STRUCTURAL DERMINISM -
STRUCUTRALLY REPRODUCTIVE AGENCY -
STRUCUTRALLY TRANSFORMATIVE AGENCY -
COMPLETE VOLUNTARISM - .
Pure Structural Derminism
Social structure rules; individuals are carriers of social structure; we are robots.
Strucutrally Reproductive Agency
social structures exist and are maintained only through the interactional activities of individuals; our choices tend to do this.
Strucutrally Transformative Agency
individuals make choices that can transform social structure.
Complete Voluntarism
Agency rules; we are bound only by our biology and natural resources
Structuration
a two-way process by which we shape our social world through our individual actions and by which we are re/shaped by society.
The Power Elite by C. Wright Mills
� Mills argues that social structures press upon ordinary people, resulting in them feeling as though they have little power or purpose.
� Some individuals, however, hold positions in society that afford them great decision-making power.
The thesis of the book is that power is located in three institutions
o The economy
o Politics
o The military
Social Institutions
established organized system of social behavior with a recognized purpose" (Andersen et al. 2013: 258).
Power
ability of a person or group to exercise influence and control over others" (Andersen et al. (2013: 256).
Why does the power of the American Elite lye on the structural Position
� Power flows from society's major institutions.
o Increasingly, those institutions within American society holding a vast amount of power are the economy, politics, and the military.
� As these three institutions have gained power, the individuals runnin
Interlocking directorates
organizational linkages created when the same people sit on the boards of directors of a number of corporations.