4 processes of social research (errors in everyday reasoning)
observing thru senses
generalizing from observations
reeasonning abouut coonnecttionns
reevaluating
selective observation
choosing to look only at things that are in line with our preferences or beliefs
inaccurate observation
observation based on faulty perceptions of empirical reality
overgeneralization
occurs when we unjustifiably conclude that what is true for all cases
illogical reasoning
prematurely jumping to conclusions or argue on the basis of invalid assumptions
resistance to change
reluctance to change our ideas in light of new information
science
set of logical systematic documented methods for investigating nature and natural processes: the knowledge produced by these investigations
social science
use of scientific methods to investigate individuals societies and social processes; knowledge produced by these investigations
resistance based change may occur because
ego based commitments
excessive devotion to tradition
uncritical agreement with authority
pseudoscience
claims presented so that they appear scientific even though they lack supporting evidence and plausibility
how social science over comes errors in everyday reasoning
systematic sampling
specific criteria for causality
systematic observation and measurement
use of empirical observable data
peer evaluation
systematic sampling / representative observation
overcomes overgeneralization by systematic procedure for selecting objects of study that guarantee a measurable representativeness of the group / individuals about which will be generalized
specific criteria for causality
overcomes illogical reasoning by using explicit criteria to identify causes and determining presence / absence of said criteria
systematic observation and measurement
over comes selective and inaccurate observation thought systematic sampling and measuring
use of empirical , observable data
over comes resistance to change by being based in objective reality
peer evaluation
reduces ego -based commitments excessive devotion to tradition and unquestioning respect for authority
motivations for social research
policy guidance / program management
academic concerns
personal interest
four types of social research
descriptive
exploratory
explanatory
evaluation
descriptive research
research that defines and describes social phenomena
exploratory research
investigation of social research without expectations ; seeks to find out how people get along in the setting under question ; what meaning they give to their actions and what issues concern them
explanatory research
research that identifies causes and effects of social phenomena and to predict how one phenomenon will change or vary in response to variation in some other phenomenon
evaluation research
describes / identifies the effects of a social program / or other intervention
quantitative methods
data collection methods such as surveys and experiments that record variation in social life in terms of categories that vary in amount
quantitative methods are
data or numbers OR attributes that can be ordered in terms of magnitude
most often used for explanation description and evaluation
qualitative methods
data collection methods such as participant observation, intensive interviewing and focus groups designed to capture social life as participants experience it rather than in categories that pre determined
qualitative methods are
data mostly written / spoken words. observations
data do not have a direct numerical interpretation
exploration is most often motive for using qualitative methods
triangulation
use of multiple methods to study one research question
social science
use of scientific methods to investigate individuals societies and social processes; the knowledge produced by these investigations
science
set of logical systematic documented methods for investigating nature and natural processes ; the knowledge produced by these investigations
goals of social research
validity
authenticity
validity
when statements or conclustions about empirical reality are correct includes
measurement validity
generalizability
sample generalizability
cross population (external) validity
causal (internal ) validity
authenticity
measurement validity
exists then a conclusion measures what we think it measure
generalizability
exists when a conclusion holds true for population, group, setting or event that we say it does given the conditions we specify
sample generalizability
exists when a conclusion based on a subset of a larger population holds true for the entire population
cross population (external) validity
exists when findings about one group / population / setting hold true for another group / population / group / setting
causal ( internal ) validity
exists then a conclusion that A leads to or results in B is correct
authenticity
when the understanding of a social process / setting is one that reflects the various perspectives of participants in that setting
social research as a collective endeavor
other researchers may find different results
critical evaluation of previous work should guide current research
accumulation of evidence is the goal of social science
social phenomena are complex - one study will not necessarily capture everything
new stu
social research question
question about the social world that you seek to answer through the collection and analysis of first hand ,verifiable , empirical data
3 stage for formulating social research question
identifying social research questions
refining social research questions
evaluating social research questions
identifying social research questions involves
a researcher's personal experience
social research literature
social theory
request from an agency
refining a social research question
develop a list of possible questions as you go along, narrow it to the most interesting and workable candidates, repeat if necessary
evaluating social research questions
1. feasibility of given resources ( time / budget)
2. social importance (makes difference to social world)
3. scientific relevance ( resolves contradictions in or advances social theory
social research foundations
1 search the social science literature
2 searching the web
searching social science lit.
peer reviewed social science journal
compile names of authors / key words, journal names
search databases with authors terms journals names
scan abstracts for relevance
theory
logically interrelated set of propositions about empirical reality
rational choice theory
social theory that explains individual action with the principle that actors choose actions that maximize their gains from taking that action
parts of a theory
1 makes sense of many interrelated phenomena
2 predicts behavior or attitudes likely to occur given certain conditions
3 helps identify what to look for in a study
4 connects implications of findings to other research
ex deterrence theory / labeling theor
theory connects to empirical data in 2 manners
deductive research
inductive research
deductive research
specific expectation is deduced from a general theory premise and then tested with data that has been collected for this purpose
inductive research
begins with specific data that are then used to develop (induce) a theory to account for patterns in data
hypothesis
tentative statement about empirical reality involving a relationship between two or more variables
conflict theory
identifies conflict between social groups as the primary force in society/ understanding the bases and consequences of the conflict is the key to understanding social processes
symbolic interaction theory
focuses on the symbolic nature of social interaction / how social interactions conveys meaning and promotes socialization
variables
characteristic or property that can vary / take on different values or attributes
dependent variable
variable that is hypothesized to vary depending on or under the influence of another variable
independent variable
variable that is hypothesized to cause or lead to variation in another variable
direction of association between variables
positive
negative
categorical
positive association
as independent variable goes up so does the dependent variable OR as the independent goes down so the dependent variable
negative / inverse association
as the independent variable goes up dependent variable goes down OR as independent variable goes down dependent variable goes up
categorical
if variables are categorical there is NO direction of association
inductive research can
be intentional - like exploratory research
inductive logic can be used when analyzing empirical generalizations discovered while hypothesis testing
anomalous patterns
don't fit the proposed theory
serendipitous patterns
patterns are new , unexpected patterns are found
descriptive research connection
does not connect with theory but is an interim between data collection and the generalization based on them
descriptive theory
starts with data and proceeds only to the state of making empirical generalizations
much research for governments and organizations are primarily descriptive
can stimulate more ambitious inductive and deductive research
research cycle
digram of the elements of the research process including theories , hypotheses , data collection and data analysis
research cycle image
theory -> hypothesis - > data - >descriptive research - > empirical generalizations ( in the center deductive research - > inductive research - > inductive )
directional association
pattern in a relationship between two variables
values of variable ten to change consistently in relation to the change on the other variable
empirical generalization
statement that describes patterns found in data
replications
repetitions of a study using the same research methods to answer the same research question
validity
state that exists when statements or conclusions about empirical reality are correct
measurement validity
exists when a measure measures what we think it measures
generalizability
exists when a conclusion holds true for the population group/ setting/event the way we said it does given the conditions that we specify
IRB
institutional review board
institutional review board IRB
group of organizational and community representatives required by federal law to review the ethical issues in all proposed research that is federally funded,involves human subjects or has potential for harm to subjects
social research methods
scientists must be honest and reveal their methods
scientists must consider uses to findings
concern for human subjects
scientist must be honest and reveal their methods
honest/ openness/ ethical behavior with peers and subjects
know difference between honest errors and fraud
scientists consider uses for findings
question ability of researcher to set aside values in research and use research to advance specific goals
personal values should be left out
when and how to publish and where
consider human subjects
require IRB review
professional organization guidelines
ASA code of ethics
informed consent requires
in certain circumstances deception is permitted
confidentially
ASA code of ethics
1 no harm should come to subjects
2 voluntary participation / informed consent
3 researchers should fully disclose their identity
4 anonymity and confidentiality must be maintained for individual research participants
5 benefits must outweigh any foreseea
informed consent requires
participants are competent to give consent ( children, prisoners, mentally handicapped can not give consent)
participants MUST be voluntary
participants MUST be fully informed of research
participants MUST understand what they have been told
researchers may withhold some info if
consent forms may be bias research by altering participants behavior
incases where deception occurs Debriefing is Mandatory.
Confidentiality
confidentiality statement should be included in the informed consent agreement about how privacy will be protected
standards of confidentiality Do Not Apply in the case of Public Records
social research proposals should have at least these 6 components
introductory statement of research problem
literature review
methodological plan
budget
ethics statement
statement of limitations
If proposal is under competitive review
compelling rationale for funding
results from pilot study
origins of social science
1st conceived durning the Industrial revolution in Europe
shift from community were people knew each other intimately to a society where people knew each other thru specialized roles
two types of societies
Geminschaft
Gesellschaft
Geminschaft societies
based on community
homogenous
social relations based on kinship
often based on common religion
Gesellschaft societies
based on association
individualistic
competitive
developed division of labor
theoretical perspectives in social science
Durkeim
Functionalism
Conflict theory
rational choice theory
symbolic interactionism
Durkheim
is there anything that can replace power of traditional social bonds in modern society
mechanical solidarity
organic solidarity
mechanical solidarity
based on likeliness
organic solidarity
division of labor weakens bonds based on likeness, strengthens bonds of interdependence
organic solidarity serves function of
bonding people together with a developed division of labor
Functionalism
explains social patterns in terms of consequences for society as a whole
emphasizes interdependance of social institutions
emphasizes interest in maintaining social order
key concepts of Durkheim
division of labor
solidarity
strength of social bond
propensity to commit suicide
societal functions
Conflict theory - Marx
Marx - social classes were key groupings in society and conflict between them bot norm but engine for social change
Conflict theory
1. identifies conflict between social groups are primary force in society
2. assumes that understanding bases and consequences of conflict is key to understanding social process
Weber
independent variable shaped modern economic system
Rational Choice theory
explains social processes in terms of rational cos/ benefit analyses that shape behavior - Adam Smith
Symbolic interactionism
focuses on symbolic nature of social interaction
on how interaction conveys meaning and promotes socialization
Mead self reflects general pattern of social / group
Cooley - reflective consciousness is social consciousness
social research should
seek to extend . challenge or specify a single theory
test implications of one theory against another
combine aspects of different theories
Milgrams experiment
1960 shocking unknown person for participants wrong answer - change progress with each wrong answer
Nuremberg war Crime trials
exposed horrific medical experiments conducted by the Nazi doctors and others in the "Name of science
Belmont report
established by the National Commission for the protection of human subjects of biomedical and behavioral research- to create guidelines
belmont report established 3 basic ethical principles
respect for person
beneficence
justice
respect for persons
treating persons as autonomous agents and protecting those with diminished autonomy
beneficence
minimizing possible harms and maximizing benefits
justice
distributing benefits and risks of research fairly
Federal policy for the protection of human subjects
translation of the belmont principles by the department of health and human services and the food and drug administration
conflict of interest
when a researcher has a significant stake in the design or outcome of his / her own research
debriefing
researcher's informing subjects after the experiment about the experiment's purpose and methods and evaluating subject's personal reactions to the experiment
certificate of confidentiality
certificate issued to a researcher by the NIH (national institute of health) that ensures the right to protect information obtained about high risk populations or behaviors except child abuse or neglect - from legal subpoenas
positivism
belief , shared by most scientist that there is a reality apart from our own perception of it, that it can be understood through observation and that is follows general laws
postpositivism
belief that there is an empirical reality, but that our understanding of it is limited by it's complexity and the biases and other limitations of researchers
intersubjective agreement
an agreement by different observers on what is happening in the natural or social world
interpretivism
belief that reality is socially constructed and the goal of social scientists is to understand what meanings people give to that reality
constructivism
perceptive that emphasizes how different stakeholders in social settings construct their beliefs
Hermeneutic circle
represents the dialectical process in which the researcher obtains information from multiple stakeholders in a setting refines his/her understanding of setting and then test that understanding with successive respondents
feminist research
research with focus on women's lives and often including an orientation to personal experience, subjective orientations ,the researcher's standpoint and emotions
scientific paradigm
set of beliefs that guide scientific work in an area including unquestioned presuppositions accepted theories and exemplary research findings
normal science
gradual incremental research conducted by scientists within the prevailing scientific paradigm
scientific revolution
abrupt shift from one dominant scientific paradigm to an alternative paradigm that may be developed after accumulation of a large body of evidence that contradicts the prevailing paradigm
paradigm wars
intense debate from 1970's to 1990's between social scientists over the value of positivist and interpretivist research philosophies
sociology of knowledge
integrated philosophy that studies the process by which people make themselves as they construct society