sociology
the systematic study of human society and social interaction
society
a large social grouping that shares the same geographical territory and is subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations
sociological imagination
C. Wright Mill's term for the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society
high-income countries
nations with highly industrialized economies; technologically advanced industrial, administrative, and service occupation; and relatively high levels of national and personal income
high-income countries
also called industrial countries
middle-income countries
nations with industrializing economies and moderate levels of national and personal income
middle-income countries
also called developing countries
low-income countries
nations with little industrialization and low levels of national and personal income
low-income countries
also called underdeveloped countries
industrialization
the process by which societies are transformed from dependence on agriculture and handmade products to an emphasis on manufacturing and related industries
urbanization
the process by which an increasing proportion of the population lives in cities rather than in rural areas
positivism
a term describing Auguste Comte's belief that the world can best be understood through scientific inquiry
social Darwinism
Herbert Spencer's belief that those species of animals, including human beings, best adapted to their environment survive and prosper, whereas those poorly adapted die out
social facts
Emile Durkheim's term for patterned ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist outside any one individual but that exert social control over each person
anomie
Emile Durkheim's designations for a condition in which social control becomes ineffective as a result of the loss of shared values and of a sense of purpose in society
theory
a set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally) predict social events
functionalist perspective
the sociological approach that views society as a stable, orderly system
manifest functions
functions that are intended and/or overtly recognized by the participants in a social unit
latent functions
unintended functions that are hidden and remain unacknowledged by participants
conflict perspectives
a sociological approach that view groups in society as engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources
macrolevel analysis
an approach that examines whole societies, large-scale social structures, and social systems
microlevel analysis
sociological theory and research that focus on small groups rather than on large-scale social structures
symbolic interactionist perspectives
the sociological approach that view society as the sum of the interactions of individuals and groups
postmodern perspectives
the sociological approach that attempts to explain social life in modern societies that are characterized by postindustrialization, consumerism, and global communications
hypothesis
in research studies, a tentative statement of the relationship between two or more concepts
independent variable
a variable that is presumed to cause or determine a dependent variable
dependent variable
a variable that is assumed to depend on or be caused by one or more other (independent) variables
random sampling
a study approach in which every member of an entire population being studied has the same chance of being selected
probability sampling
choosing participants for a study on the basis of specific characteristics, possibly including such factors as age, sex, race/ethnicity, and educational attainment
validity
in sociological research, the extent to which a study or research instrument accurately measures what it is supposed to measure
reliability
in sociological research, the extent to which a study or research instrument yields consistent results when applied to different individuals at one time or to the same individuals over time
research methods
specific strategies or techniques for systematically conducting research
survey
a poll in which the researcher gathers facts or attempts to determine the relationship among facts
respondents
persons who provide data for analysis through interviews or questionnaires
questionnaire
a printed research instrument containing a series of items to which subjects respond
interview
a research method using a data collection encounter in which an interviewer asks the respondent questions and records the answers
secondary analysis
a research method in which researchers use existing material and analyze data that were originally collected by others
content analysis
the systematic examination of cultural artifacts or various forms of communication to extract thematic data and draw conclusions conclusions about social life
field research
the study of social life in its natural setting: observing and interviewing people where they live, work, and play
participant observation
a research method in which researchers collect data while being part of the activities of the group being studied
ethnography
a detailed study of the life and activities of a group of people by researchers who may live with that group over a period of years
unstructured interview
an extended, open-ended interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee
experiment
a research method involving a carefully designed situation in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables on subjects' attitudes or behavior
experimental group
in an experiment, the group that contains the subjects who are exposed to an independent variable (the experimental condition) to study its affect on them
control group
in an experiment, the group containing the subjects who are not exposed to the independent variable
correlation
a relationship that exists when two variables are associated more frequently than could be expected by chance
Hawthorne effect
a phenomenon in which changes in a subject's behavior are caused by the researcher's presence or by the subject's awareness of being studied
material culture
a component of culture that consists of the physical or tangible creations (such as clothing, shelter, and art) that members of a society make, use, and share
technology
the knowledge, techniques, and tools that allow people to transform resources into a usable form and the knowledge and skills required to use what is developed
nonmaterial culture
a component of culture that consists of the abstract or intangible human creations of society (such as attitudes, beliefs, and values) that influence people's behavior
cultural universals
customs and practices that occur across all societies
symbol
anything that meaningfully represents something else
language
a set of symbols that expresses ideas and enables people to think and communicate with one another
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
the proposition that language shapes the view of reality of its speakers
values
collective ideas about what is right or wrong, good or bad, and desirable or undesirable in a particular culture
norms
established rules of behavior or standards or conduct
sanctions
rewards for appropriate behavior or penalties for inappropriate behavior
folkways
informal norms or everyday customs that may be violated without serious consequences within a particular culture
mores
strongly held norms with moral and ethical connotations that may not be violated without serious consequences in a particular culture
taboos
mores so strong that their violation is considered to be extremely offensive and even unmentionable
laws
formal, standardized norms that have been enacted by legislatures and are enforced by formal sanctions
cultural lag
William Ogburn's term for a gap between the technical development of a society (material culture) and its moral and legal institutions (nonmaterial culture)
discovery
the process of learning about something previously unknown or unrecognized
invention
the process of reshaping existing cultural items into a new form
diffusion
the transmission of cultural items or social practices from one group or society to another
subculture
a group of people who share a distinctive set of cultural beliefs and behaviors that differs in some significant way from that of the larger society
counterculture
a group that strongly rejects dominant societal values and norms and seeks alternative lifestyles
culture shock
the disorientation that people feel when they encounter cultures radically different from their own and believe they cannot depend on their own taken-for-granted assumptions about life
ethnocentrism
the practice of judging all other cultures by one's own culture
cultural relativism
the belief that the behaviors and customs of any culture must be viewed and analyzed by the culture's own standards
popular culture
the component of culture that consists of activities, products, and services that are assumed to appeal primarily to members of the middle and working classes
cultural imperialism
the extensive infusion of one nation's culture into other nations
socialization
the lifelong process of social interaction through which individuals acquire a self-identity and the physical, mental, and social skills needed for survival in society
sociobiology
the systematic study of how biology affects social behavior
id
Sigmund Freud's term for the component of personality that includes all of the individual's basic biological drives and needs that demand immediate gratification
ego
according to Sigmund Freud, the rational, reality-oriented component of personality that imposes restrictions on the innate pleasure-seeking drives of the id
superego
Sigmund Freud's term for the conscience, consisting of the moral and ethical aspects of personality
self-concept
the totality of our beliefs and feelings about ourselves
looking-glass self
Charles Horton Cooley's term for the way in which a person's sense of self is derived from the perceptions of others
role-taking
the process by which a person mentally assumes the role of another person in order to understand the world from that person's point of view
significant others
those persons whose care, affection, and approval are especially desired and who are most important in the development of the self
generalized other
George Herbert Mead's term for the child's awareness of the demands and expectations of the society as a whole or of the child's subculture
agents of socialization
the persons, groups, or institutions that teach us what we need to know in order to participate in society
peer group
a group of people who are linked by common interests, equal social position, and (usually) similar age
gender socialization
the aspect of socialization that contains specific messages and practices concerning the nature of being female or male in a specific group or society
racial socialization
the aspect of socialization that contains specific messages and practices concerning the nature of one's racial or ethnic status
anticipatory socialization
the process by which knowledge and skills are learned for future roles
social deviation
a situation in which a person or group is considered to have less social value than other persons or groups
resocialization
the process of learning a new and different set of attitudes, values, and behaviors from those in one's background and previous experience
total institution
Erving Goffman's term for a place where people are isolated from the rest of society for a set period of time and come under the control of the officials who run the institution