society
the people who interact in a defined territoryand share a culture
Gerhard Lenski
sociologist that describes how societites have changed over the past 10,000 years. points to the importance of techonlogy in shaping society
Karl Marx
sociologist that describes how societites have changed over the past 10,000 years. focuses on social conflict that arises aw people work within an economic system to produce material goods
Max Weber
sociologist that describes how societites have changed over the past 10,000 years. contrasted the traditional thinking of simple societites with the rational thought that dominates complex societites today
Emile Drurkheim
sociologist that describes how societites have changed over the past 10,000 years. helps us see the different ways that traditional and modern societies hang together
sociocultural evolution
term used by Lenski that refers to the changes that occur as a society gains a new technology. the simpler the technology of a society, the fewer people it can support and the less control it has over nature/ its surroundings
technology in simple societies changes ________, whereas technology in modern, high-tech societies changes __________.
slowly
quickly
hunting and gathering society
simplest of all societies. people make use of simple tools to hunt animals and gather vegetation for food. 3 million years ago- 12,000 years ago.
-takes large amount of land to support a few people
-societies like this have only a few dozen people
-nomadi
society defined by Lenski
defined by level of technology
society defined by Marx
defined by social conflict
society defined by Weber
defined by ideas/mode of thinking
society defined by Durkheim
defined by type of solidarity
horticulture
use of hand tools to raise crops
horticultural society
technological advance from hunting and gathering: simple hand tools to aid in planting/ producing own food instead of gathering. 12,000-10,000 years ago. horticulture was often mixed with pastoralism.
-beginning of specialization/ social diversity
-monoth
agriculture
large-scale cultivation using plows harnessed to animals or more powerful energy sources
dawn of civilization
breakthroughs of the agrarian period (wheel, writing, irrigation, plow) about 5000 years ago
agrarian society
agriculture led to permanent settlements, more distinct social inequality and classes, specialization and occupations, "refined" activities like reading and researching.
-religion reinforces power of elites (divine right of monarchies)
industrialism
production of goods using advanced sources of energy to drive large machinery
industrial society
industrialism introduced new technology for communication, trasnportation, manufacturing, and luxuries used in day to day life.
-weakening of strong family ties, close working relationships, traditional beliefs, and customs of agrarian society.
-occupatio
postindustrial society
new phase of technological development
postindustrialism
refers to the production of information using computer technology; production relies on computers and other elctronic devices that create, process, store, and apply information
Daniel Bell
coined the term "postindustrialism
sociocultural evolution: 5 stages of evolving cultures
hunting and gathering
horticulture
agrarian
industrialism
postindustrialism
Karl Marx
early giant in the field of sociology whose influence continues today. awed by advances in industry and and technology and the wealth that they brought; yet astounded by the fact that only very few had access to that technology and wealth.
-saw society in
social conflict
the struggle between segments of society over valued resources. can take place in many forms:
-individuals quarrel
-long-standing rivalries
-warring nations
most important type is class conflict arising from the way a society produces material goods
capitalists
people who own and operate factories and other businesses in pursuit of profits.
proletarians
industrial workers in a capitalist society. people who sell their labor for wages
social institutions
the major spheres of social life, or societal subsystems, organized to meet human needs. Include:
-economy
-political system
-family
-religion
-education
infrastructure as defined by Marx
economic system
(infra- Latin for "below")
superstructure defined by Marx
social institutions other than the economy (economy is infrastructure)
-family
-religion
-political system
that are built on this foundation (infrasructure) and support it
false consciousness (Marx)
explaining social problems as the shortcomings of individuals rather than as the flaws of a society.
-most people living in an industrial-capitalist system do not recognize how capitalism shapes the operation of their entire society. Many of us tend to se
communism
system in which people commonly own and equally share food and other things they produce.
-hunting and gathering societies had primitive form of communism
bourgeoisie
merchants and skilled craftsman formed this capitalist class.
commercial class
overthrew old agrarian elite
Manifesto of the Communist Party
Karl Marx and Freidrich Engels' best known statement.
begins: "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.
class conflict
aka class struggle
conflict between entire classes of the distribution of a society's wealth and power.
class consciousness
Marx was always in favor of a revolution overthrowing capitalism. First, workers must become aware of their oppression and see capitalism as its true cause. Second, they must organize and address their problems. False consciousness must be replaced with t
alienation
the experience of isolation and misery resulting from powerlessness
four ways in which capitalism alienates workers (Marx's idea of alienation and social conflict)
alienation from:
1. the act of working
2. the products of work
3. other workers
4. human potential
one of the four ways capitalism alienates workers (marx)
1. alienation from the act of working
capitalism denies workers a say in what they're making or how they make it.
one of the four ways capitalism alienates workers (marx)
2.alienation from the products of work
the product of work belongs not to the worker, but to capitalists who sell it for profit
one of the four ways capitalism alienates workers (marx)
3. alienation from other workers
capitalism makes work competitive rather than cooperative
one of the four ways capitalism alienates workers (marx)
alienation from human potential
workers dont have the freedom to unwind and be themselves in the workplace. capitalism turns an activity that should express the best qualities in a person int oa a dull and dehumanizing experience.
socialism
Marx's dream system of production that could provide for the social needs of all; as far away from capitalism as possible
Max Weber
with a wide range of knowledge of law, economics, religion, and history, this sociologist produced what many experts regard as the greatest individual contribution ever made to sociology.
idealism
Weber's philosophical approach that emphasized how human ideas - especially beliefs and values- shape society.
-not about how people produce things, but how people think about the world.
-new societies= product of new ideas
ideal type
an abstract statement of the essential cahracterists of any social phenomenon
tradition
values and beliefs passed from generation to generation
rationality
a way of thinking that emphasizes deliberate, matter-of fact calculation of the most efficient way to accomplish a particular task.
rationalization of society (Weber)
historical change from tradition to rationality as the main human thought.
-Weber described modern society as "disenchanted' because scientific thinking swept away sentimental ties to the past.
according to Weber, the amount of _______ _______ depends on how a society's people understand their world
technological innovation
Weber thought capitalism _______, while Marx viewed it as _______.
rational
irrational
according to Weber, they key to the birth of industrial capitalism was the __________ ________.
Protestant Reformation
inner-worldly asceticism
approaching life in a formal and rational way
predestination
belief that an all-knowing and all-powerful God had predestined some people for salvation and others for damnation
seven characteristics of a rational social organization (Weber)
1. distinctive social institutions
2. large-scale organizations
3. specialized tasks
4. personal discipline
5. awareness of time
6. technical competance
7. impersonality
one of the seven characteristics of a rational social organization (Weber)
1. Distinctive social institutions
as society evolves, more social institutions
-family
-economic system
-political system
-religion
-education
appear. specialized intstitutions are a rational way of meeting ever-changing human needs
one of the seven characteristics of a rational social organization (Weber)
2. Large-scale organizations
large, formal organizations (big companies nowadays) and federal and state governments that run society and that individuals are involved in. organizations employ individuals.
one of the seven characteristics of a rational social organization (Weber)
3. specialized tasks
thousands and thousands of different occupations available for an individual today
one of the seven characteristics of a rational social organization (Weber)
4. personal discipline
modern societies put a premium on self-discipline. encouraged by our cultural values of success and achievement and expected by employers
one of the seven characteristics of a rational social organization (Weber)
5. awareness of time
measurement of time has gone from recognizing seasons and rythym of the sun to precise hour by minute scheduling
one of the seven characteristics of a rational social organization (Weber)
6. technical competance
judging people based on WHAT they are, not WHO they are, with an eye toward their education, skills, and abilities. success often means keeping up with the latest skills and knowledge in one's particular field.
one of the seven characteristics of a rational social organization (Weber)
7. impersonality
the world becomes impersonal. jobs are given based on technical competance and qualifications for said job. modern society is task-oriented rather than people-oriented and emotion is devalued. emotion can compromise one's personal disciplne, threatening t
bureaucracy
Weber considered the growth of large, rational organizations- these would be bureaucracies- one of the defining traits of modern societies. much in common with capitalism.
-considered burreaucracies hihgly rational because its elements- offices, duties, a
Weber agreed with Marx in that ________ ________ was highly productive and that _________ ________ generates widespread alienation, but gave different reasons for it.
industrial capitalism
modern society
Emile Durkheim
this sociologist's great insight was recognizing that society exists beyond ourselves. more than the individuals who compose it.
social facts
patterns of human behavior- cultural norms, values, and beliefs- that exist as established structures and that have an objective reality beyond the lives of individuals
Durkheim stated that _____ was vital to the ongoing life of society itself. therefore it is considered normal since society couldnt function without it
crime
Durkheim's claim about the formation of personalities
Society is not only "beyond ourselves" but also "in ourselves" helping to form our personalities. how we act, think, and feel are part of the society that nurtures us. society also provdes the moral discipline that guides our behavior and controls our des
Durkheim's study of suicide showed that people with the _______ level of suicide rates were those with the ______ level of social integration.
highest
lowest
anomie
a condition in which society provides little moral guidance to individuals. Durkheim warned of this, with all the freedom modern society give to individuals
mechanical solidarity (Durkheim)
social bonds, based on common sentiments and shared moral values that are strong among people of preindustrial societies. based on similarity.
-referred to as "mechanical" because people are linked together in lockstep, with more or less automatic sense o
organic solidarity (Durkheim)
social bonds, based on specialization and interdependence, that are strong among members of industrial societies.
-solidarity that was once rooted in similarities is now based on differences among people who find that their specialized work makes them rel
division of labor
specialized economic activity
-Durkheim asserts that the expansion of this is the key to change in a society
Durkheim: modern society rests less on ______ ________ and far more on ______ _______.
moral consensus
functional interdependence
Marx, Weber, and Durkheim all expressed worry about the direction society was taking. _______ was the most optimistic.
Durkheim
What holds society together? Lenski says:
members of society are united by a shared culture, although cultural patterns become more diverse as a society gains more complex technology.
as technology becomes more complex, inequality divides a society more and more
-industrialization reverses divisi
What holds society together? Marx says:
Marx saw no unity in society, only division based on class poistion.
-true social unity can only occur when production becomes a cooperative process
What holds society together? Weber says:
members of society share a worldview
What holds society together? Durkheim says:
mechanical solidarity in preindustrial societies and organic solidarity in modern society
How have societies changed? Lenski says:
societies differ mostly in terms of changing technology
How have societies changed? Marx says:
historical differences in productivity and continuing social conflict
How have societies changed? Weber says:
perspective of how people look at the world has changed
How have societies changed? Durkheim says:
from mechanical solidarity to organic
Why do societies change? Lenski says:
change comes about through technological innovation
Why do societies change? Marx says:
materialistic approach highlights the struggle between classes
Why do societies change? Weber says:
ideas contribute to social change
Why do societies change? Durkheim says:
expanding division of labor
Marx thought that a system of _____ist production always ends up creating conflict between _____ists and workers. This conflict could only end with the end of ________ism itself. (same word in all blanks)
capital
philosophical appraoch of materialism
how humans produce material goods shapes their experiences
pastoralism
domestication of animals
Summary: Gerhard Lenski points to the importance of _______ in shaping any society. He uses the term _______ _______ to mean changes that occur as a society gains new technology.
technology
sociocultural evolution
Summary: Karl Marx's _________ ________ claims that societies are defined by their economic systems: how humans produce amterial goods shapes their experiences
materialist approach
Summary: Max Weber's ________ ________ emphsizes the power of ideas to shape society
idealist approach
Summary: Emile Durkheim claimed that society has an objective existence apart from its ________ ________.
individual members
socialization
lifelong social experience by which people develop their human potential and learn culture.
personality
a person's fairly consistent patterns of acting, thinking, and feeling, the foundation of which is social experience.
behaviorism
theory that holds that behavior is not instinctive but learned. therefore, everyone is equally human, differeing only in their cultural patterns. human behavior is rooted in nurture not nature.
John B. Watson
psychologist that developed the behaviorism theory
social isolation case- Anna
stayed in a storage room with almost no human contact for the first 5 years of her life. unresponsive when found. social isolation had caused permanent damage in development.
social isolation case- Isabelle
6 years of virtual isolation. intensive learning program pushed her through 6 years of development in only two, and by the time she was fourteen she was attending 6th grade classes and on her way to a normal life
social isolation case- Genie
from ages 2-13 she was tied to a chair in the garage and had the mental development of a one year old upon rescue. her language ability never surpassed that of a young child.
Sigmund Freud
claimed that biology plays a major role in human development, but not in terms of instinct.
-humans have two basic needs or drives present at birth: sexual and emotional bonding (life instinct) and an aggressive drive (death instinct).
-these opposing for
life instinct (freud)
#NAME?
death instinct (freud)
#NAME?
id (freud)
-latin for "it"
represents the human being's basic drives, which are unconscious and demand immediate satisfaction.
-rooted in biology, it is present at birth but society opposes it.
ego (freud)
-latin for "I"
a person's conscious efforts to balance innate pleasure-seeking drives with the demands of society.
-arises as we become aware of our distinct existance and face the fact that we cannot have everything we want
superego (freud)
-latin for "above or beyond the ego." "above oneself"
the cultural values and norms internalized by an individual. operates as our conscience, telling us WHY we cant have everything we want.
-begins to form as a child becomes aware of parental demands and
sublimination (freud)
#NAME?
cognition
how people think and understand
sensorimotor stage of cognitive development (piaget)
level of human development at which individuals experience the world only through their senses
-first two years of life
preoperational stage cognitive development (piaget)
level of human development at which individuals first use language and other symbols
-ages 2-6
-can think about the world mentally and use imagination
jean piaget
#NAME?
four stages of cognitive development
sensorimotor
preoperational
concrete operational
formal operational
concrete operational stage of cognitive development
-ages 7-11
level of human development at which individuals first see casual connections in their surroundings
-focus is on how and why things happen
formal operational stage of cognitive development
level of human development at which individuals think abstractly and critically
-beginning at age 12
-gain capacity to understand abstract thought and metaphors
lawrence kohlberg
built on Piagets work to study moral reasoning, how individuals judge situations as right and wrong.
-development occurs in stages
stages of moral development (kohlberg)
preconventional
conventional
postconventional
preconventional level- first stage of moral development (kohlberg)
early stage: when young children are experience the world in terms of pain and pleasure.
-"rightness" = "what feels good to me
conventional level- second stage of moral development (kohlberg)
this stage appears by teen years: when young people start to lose some of their selfishness as they learn to define right and wrong in terms of what pleases parents and conforms to cultural norms.
-individuals at this stage also begin to assess intention
postconventional level- third stage of moral development (kohlberg)
final stage of moral development: people move beyond their society's norms to consider abstract ethical principles like liberty, freedom, justice.
carol gilligan
#NAME?
gilligan's theory of gender and moral development
different standards of what is right for men and women.
-men have a "justice perspective", relying on formal rules to define right and wrong
-women have a "care and responsibility perspective", judging a situation with an eye toward personal relationships
george herbert mead
developed the theory if social behaviorism to explain how social experience develops a person's personality
self
part of an individual's personality composed of self-awareness and self-image
mead's six points about the "self
1. the self is not there at birth, it develops. the self is a product of social experience.
-mead rejects the idea that the personality is guided by biological drives (freud) or biological maturation (piaget)
2. the self develops only within social experi
Charles Horton Cooley
coined the phrase "looking-glass self
looking-glass self
a self-image based on how we think other people see us
I" vs "me
-"I" is the part of the self that operates as the subject, being active and spontaneous
-"me" is the objective part of the self, works as an object.
according to mead, ________ __ ____ ___ ___ __ ___ _____ is the key to developing the self.
learning to take the role of the other
imitation
mimic behavior
significant others (mead)
people, such as parents, who have special importance for socialization
play, games
play involves assuming roles, games incorporate many other individuals
generalized other (mead)
widespread cultural norms and values we use as references in evaluating ourselves
Erik H. Erikson
took a broader view of socialization. explained that we face challenges throughout the life course
Erikson's eight stages of development
1. infancy
2. toddlerhood
3. preschool
4. preadolescence
5. adolescence
6. young adulthood
7. middle adulthood
8. old age
stage 1 of Erikson's stages of development: infancy
challenge of trust (vs mistrust)
must trust that the world is a safe place
stage 2 of Erikson's stages of development: toddlerhood
challenge of autonomy (vs. doubt and shame)
learn skills and gain confidence
stage 3 of Erikson's stages of development: preschool
challenge of initiative (vs. guilt)
engage in surroundings or face guilt at failing to meet the expectations of others
stage 4 of Erikson's stages of development: preadolescence
challenge of industriousness (vs. inferiority)
either feel proud of accomplishments or fear that they dont measure up
stage 5 of Erikson's stages of development: adolescence
challenge of gaining identity (vs. confusion)
struggle with wanting to identify with others yet remain unique
stage 6 of Erikson's stages of development: young adulthood
challenge of intimacy (vs. isolation)
form and maintain intimate relationships with otehrs
stage 7 of Erikson's stages of development: middle adulthood
challenge of making a difference (vs. self-absorption)
contributing to the lives of others
stage 8 of Erikson's stages of development: old age
challenge of integrity (vs. despair)
people hope to look back on their life and their accomplishments with a sense of integrity and satisfaction
four biggest agents of socialization
family
school
peer group
mass media
Family as a socialization agent: what factors of family?
nurture in early childhood
race
social class
School as a socialization agent: what factors of schooling?
gender
what children learn
hidden curriculum
informally teaching students
Ex: spelling bees. curriculum is teaching how to spell; hidden curriculum is learnign about winners and losers
peer group
a social group whose members have interests, social position, and age in common.
among peers, children learn how to form relationships on their own
generation gap
differences in opinions between older and younger generations
anticipatory socialization
learning that helps a person acheive a desired position
mass media
the means of delivering impersonal communications to a vast audience
-media is plural for "medium", latin for "middle", suggesting that media connects people.
childhood
roughly the first twelve years of life. carefree time of learning and play
-children are biologically immature
adolescence
#NAME?
adulthood
time when most of life's accomplishments take place.
-job, family,
early adulthood
until about age 40
young adults learn to manage day to day affairs for themselves, often juggling priorities
middle adulthood
ages 40-65
people sense that their life circumstances are pretty well set. more aware of the fragility of health, which the young typically take for granted
old age
final stage of life itself.
gradually leaving roles, Ex: retirement
five stages of death/ dying
1. denial
2. anger
3. negotiation
4. resignation
5. acceptance
cohort
a category of people with something common, usually their age. tend to have similar views and values
total institution
a setting in whichpeople are isolated from the rest of society and manipulated by an administrative staff
resocialization
radically changing an inmate's personality by carefully controlling the environment
2 stages of resocialization
first the staff breaks down the inmate's existing identity, then they try to build a new self in the inmate through a system of rewards and punishments
institutionalized
without the capacity of independent living. people can become this way after living in a rigidly controlled environment over a long period of time.
Summary: Sigmund Freud's model of the human personality has three parts:
__: innate, pleasure-seeking, human drives
______: the demands of society in the form of internalized values and norms
___: our efforts to balance innate, pleasure-seeking drives and
id
ego
superego
Summary: Jean Piaget believed that human development involves both biological maturation and gaining social experience. He identified four stages of cognitive development:
-the ________ stage involves knowing the world only through the senses.
-the ______
sensorimotor
preoperational
concrete operational
formal operational
Summary: Lawrence Kohlberg applied Piaget's approach to stages of moral development:
-first we judge the rightness in __________ terms, according to our individual needs.
-next, _________ moral reasoning takes account of parental attitudes and cultural no
preconventional
conventional
postconventional
Summary: Carol Gilligan found that _____ plays a major role in moral development, with _____ relying more on abstract standards of rightness and _______ relying more on the effects of actions on relationships.
gender
men
women
Summary: to George Herbert Mead:
-the ____ is a part of our personality and includes self-awareness and self-image
-the ____ develops only as a result of social experience.
-social experience involves the exchange of _____.
-social interaction depends on
self
self
ideas
role
I
me
generalized other
Summary: Cahrles Horton Cooley used the term _____-____ self to explain that we see ourselves as we imagine other people see us.
looking-glass
Summary: Erik H. Erikson identified challenges that individuals face at each stage of life from ____ to ____.
infancy
old age