memory
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
Recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
Encoding
the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
storage
the retention of encoded information over time
Retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions; contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"; obtained through effortful processing
implicit memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection; obtained through automatic processing
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
semantic memory
a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world
episodic memory
the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place
Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
memory consolidation
the neural storage of a long-term memory
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
long-term potentiation
an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
encoding specificity principle
the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
Repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
reconsolidation
a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again
Misinformation
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
source amnesia
faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined
deja vu
that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
Metacognition
awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes
method of loci
A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations
insight learning
The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past