Five influential forces in the development of community psychology
preventive perspective on problems; reforms in the mental health system; group dynamics and action research; movements for social change and liberation; social optimism
Preventive perspective on problems
influenced by the concepts of the discipline of public health (concerned with preventing illness more than with treating it)
Reforms in the mental health system
after the war, VA (veterans administration) and NIMH (national institute of mental health) were created; Community mental health centers act passed in 1963
Movement for social change and liberation
the civil rights and feminist movements most directly influenced psychology; social movements and community psychology have commonalities (the challenging of hierarchical, unequal role relationships; they sought to link social action at the local and national levels)
Historical contexts and influences of community psychology
before 1890: social darwinism, 1890-1914: progressive organizations emerged, 1919-1932: WW1 and great depression, 1930s-40s: eugenics movement and WW2, 1950s: post-war optimism
Psychological effects of unemployment
1930, marie jahoda; resilience and strenghts as well as resignation and dispair
Group dynamics (T-groups)
1940s, Kurt Lewin; intergroup relations, reduction of antisemitism; students founded NTL-center to learn about within and between group dynamics
The Coconut Grove fire
1944, Eric Lindermann; psychoeducation about coping and support to prevent future problems; crisis and transitions as points of preventive intervention
Human relations service
1948, Lindermann and Klein; learn from community members, appreciation of community strenghts
The community lodge
1950s, George Fairweather; peer group interventions with adults with chronic mental illness
Primary mental health project
1958, Emory Cohen; early intervention, paraprofessionals
Yale Psycho-educational clinic
1962, S. Sarason; understand the culture of the school
1950's-1960's - social justice and social change movements
civil rights movement (1954 brown vs board of education of topeka), women rights/feminism, peace activism, environmental activism, gay and lesbian rights, anti-poverty movement, migrant farm workers right
1955 - Stanford university conference
lindermann, klein adn others convened to describe their work; the field of community mental health was created emphasizing community-based services and prevention; it was met with resistance from advocates of traditional mental health care
1959-1961 - joint committee on mental illness and mental health
marie jahoda headed the study of postive mental health, advocated identifying and altering conditions that inhibit mental health; in one study for the report George albee reviewed research on rates of mental disorder and costs of training clinicians, concluded that the US could never train enough professionals to provide treatment for all who needed it; called for an emphasis on prevention
1963 - Community Mental Health Center (CMHC) Act
the national institute of mental health proposed system of CMHCs in response to the joint commission report; president kennedy had a special interest in mental health and retardation issues; congress passed CMHC act (community-based treatment with persons with mental disorders, crisis intervention, consultation with other agencies and community organizations, prevention activities)
1965 - Swampscott conference
39 psychologists convened at a resort in massachussets; group consisted of psychologiests involved in community work; called for a new field called community psychology (the study of psychological processes that link social systems with individual behaviors in complex interaction); some important with community mental health with important distinctions
Distinctions between community psychology and community mental health
departure from a medical model emphasizing the diagnosis and treatment of pathology; not limited to focusing solely on existing problems and disorders
1967 - Martin Luther King delivers the Invited Distinguished Addressed at APA
the role of the behavioral scientist in the civil rights movement" - social responsability(psychologists should be instruments for social change), importance of focusing on context vs. individual pathology, appealed to psychologists to "tell it like it is" (disseminate information on the reality of negro life), calls for research into complex dynamics of negro life (within-group vs comparative research), understanding of urban riots, links economic conditions and discrimination to individual behavior (called for structural changes), need to study and promote citizen leadership and social action
Creative Maladjustment
standing up for justice and equality and standing against the prevailing norms of discrimination and the oppressive status quo can appear "abnormal"; psychologists should facilitate the questioning of society and rejecting those components that permit injustice to form and grow; suggested the international association for the advancement of creative maladjustment
1975: Austin conference
100 community psychologists from the united states and puerto rico met at the university of texas at austin; focus was on issues of identity
Key themes identified at the austin conference that distinguished community psychology as a field of study
multiple levels of analysis emerged as the central and distinguishing emphasis; social action and advocacy efforts to address isms; prevention of dysfunction and the promotion of social competence; diversity was emphasized as a core value with voices of minority groups being present and heard at the conference
Latin American and community psychology
(brazil, puerto rico, guatemala, mexico, etc) emerged from social psychology and social change movements (community social psychology); response to oppression, colonialism, and poverty; rooted in liberation theology, emphasizes social justice and empowerment
Liberation theology
a form of Christian theology (developed by South American Roman Catholics) that emphasizes social and political liberation as the anticipation of ultimate salvation
Key influences and leaders in latin america
paolo friere (brazil educator and activist), iguacio martin-baro (el salvador, jesuit priest and psychologist), imma serrano-garcia (puerto rico psychologist and feminist)
Other locations for community psychology
australia and new zealand (rights and concerns about indegenous people), south africa (opposition to apartheid and post-apartheid reconciliation), europe (philosophical and epistemological issues, social movements)
More recent developments
empowerment theory, critical and liberation psychology, collaborative research
Empowerment theory
rappaport's 1981 paper; importance of community self-determination
Critical and liberation psychology
feminist community psychology; isaac prilleltensky (critical psychology, collective wellness -health of communities and societies)
Collaborative research
participant conceptualizer role (active involvement in the community while attempting to understand and develop interventions), action research (has a change agenda), expanded use of qualitative methods
Top-down approaches
focus is on efforts designed and implemented by professionals, leaders and others in elite positions; reflect experiences of those with power and usually preserve the existing power structure; characterizes community mental health; example - psychotherapy
Bottom-down approaches
originate among citizens, grassroots levels and reflect attempts for ordinary people to assert some control over their lives; reflect experiences and ideals of those most effected by the problem; characterizes efforts in community psychology; example - self help group
Individualism as a world view
ideology that is primarily concerned with personal and economic freedom from restraint; independence and autonomy are highly valued; competition is seen as teh pathway to success; individual rights are emphasized over the collective good; interaction with broader society is in the service of achieving personal goals and promoting personal agendas, no strong responsibility for helping others; influences the theories, research, and practices in psychology
Utilitarian individualism
emphasis on material success and security; individual ability and effort are the causes of success or failure; individual initiative and self-reliance are hightly valued
Expressive individualism
emphasis is on personal happiness, self discovery, and self-expression; finding oneself and self-actualization are priorities
Blaming the victim
william ryan; critique of individualism; people and groups impacted negatively by social inequities and social problems are blamed for their circumstances and their problems are attributed to personal characteristics; underlying assumption that the problems of people lie within teh biological, psychological, or moral make-up of individuals or groups; problems are seen as individual deficits that can be remedied only by individual change
Fundamental attribution error
Tendency of observers to overestimate the importance of individual characteristics and underestimate the importance of situational factors
Context minimization error
Ignoring or discounting the significance of contexts in an individual's life
Fair play
william ryan; equality exists when the rules and procedures in the competition for economic and social advancement are thought to be fair and consistent for everyone; inequalities result from differences in individual talent and effort; people accent large gaps in outcomes; assumes that all people have access to teh same opportunities and resources and there is little incentive to change the status quo
Fair shares
william ryan; equality exists when opportunities and access to resources are distributed equitably; inequalities result from disparities in opportunities and access to resources; emphasis is on minimizing extreme inequalities in outcomes and role relationships; people in a society feel a responsibility to care for all of its members
Levine and Levine Hypothesis
hypothesis regarding the impact of historical and sociopolitcal forces on conceptions of human problems
Levine and Levine hypothesis (conservative times)
problems are conceptualized in terms of individual factors (eg genetics, personality); results in pessimism about potential for solution of social problems (by health professionals or the criminal justice system)
Levine and Levine hypothesis (progressive times)
problems are conceptualized in terms of environmental factors (eg poverty, lack of educational opportunity); results in optimism about solutions to social problems through social change and improving community life
Divergent reasoning
identifys multiple truths in teh opposing perspectives; recognizes that conflicting viewpoints may usefully coexist; resists easy answers
Globalization
refers to the centralizing effects of market capitalism, advertising, mass media, and values of individualism and economic output
Indigenization
refers to consciousness of traditional collective values and commmunity bonds of indigenous ethnic cultures and local communities