government
the formal vehicle through which policies are made and affairs of state are conducted
citizen
Member of the political community to whom certain rights and obligations are attached.
politics
The study of who gets what, when, and how—or how policy decisions are made.
monarchy
A form of government in which power is vested in hereditary kings and queens who govern in the interests of all
totalitarianism
A form of government in which power resides in a leader who rules according to self-interest and without regard for individual rights and liberties
oligarchy
A form of government in which the right to participate is conditioned on the possession of wealth, social status, military position, or achievement
democracy
A system of government that gives power to the people, whether directly or through elected representatives
social contract
An agreement between the people and their government signifying their consent to be governed
social contract theory
The belief that people are free and equal by God-given right and that this in turn requires that all people give their consent to be governed; espoused by John Locke and influential in the writing of the Declaration of Independence
direct democracy
A system of government in which members of the polity meet to discuss all policy decisions and then agree to abide by majority rule
indirect (representative) democracy
A system of government that gives citizens the opportunity to vote for representatives who will work on their behalf
republic
A government rooted in the consent of the governed; a representative or indirect democracy
political culture
Commonly shared attitudes, beliefs, and core values about how government should operate
personal liberty
A key characteristic of U.S. democracy. Initially meaning freedom from governmental interference, today it includes demands for freedom to engage in a variety of practices free from governmental interference or discrimination
political equality
the principle that all citizens are equal in the political process that is implied by the phrase "one person, one vote.
popular consent
the idea that governments must draw their powers from the consent of the governed
majority rule
the central premise of direct democracy in which only policies that collectively garner the support of a majority of voters will be made into law
popular sovereignty
The notion that the ultimate authority in society rests with the people
natural law
A doctrine that society should be governed by certain ethical principles that are part of nature and, as such, can be understood by reason
civil society
Society created when citizens are allowed to organize and express their views publicly as they engage in an open debate about public policy
ideology
a set or system of beliefs that shapes the thinking of individuals and how they view the world
political ideology
the coherent set of values and beliefs about the purpose and scope of government held by groups and individuals
libertarian
one who favors a free market economy and no governmental interference in personal liberties
conservative
One thought to believe that a government is best that governs least and that big government can only infringe on individual, personal, and economic rights
social conservative
One who believes that traditional moral teachings should be supported and furthered by the government
liberal
one considered to favor governmental involvement in the economy and in the provision of social services and to take an activist role in protecting the rights of women, the elderly, minorities, and the environment
american dream
an American ideal of a happy, successful life, which often includes wealth, a house, a better life for ones children, and, for some, the ability to grow up to be president
mercantilism
An economic theory designed to increase a nation's wealth through the development of commercial industry and a favorable balance of trade
stamp act congress
meeting of representatives of nine of the thirteen colonies held in New York City in 1765, during which representatives drafted a document to send to the king listing how their rights had been violated
committees of correspondence
Organizations in each of the American colonies created to keep colonists abreast of developments with the British; served as powerful molders of public opinion against the British
first continental congress
Meeting held in Philadelphia from September 5 to October 26, 1774, in which fifty-six delegates (from every colony except Georgia) adopted a resolution in opposition to Coercive Acts
second continental congress
meeting that convened in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, at which it was decided that an army should be raised and George Washington of Virginia was named commander in chief
confederation
type of government where the national government derives its powers form the states; a league of independent states
declaration of independence
document drafted by Thomas Jefferson in 1776 that proclaimed the right of the American colonies to separate from Great Britain
articles of confederation
the compact among the thirteen original states that was the basis of their government. Written in 1776, the Articles were not ratified by all the states until 1781
shay's rebellion
a 1786 rebellion in which an army of 1,500 disgruntled and angry farmers led by Daniel Shays marched to Springfield, Massachusetts, and forcibly restrained the state court from foreclosing mortgages on their farms
constitution
a document establishing the structure, functions, and limitations of a government.
virginia plan
the first general plan for the Constitution, proposed by James Madison and Edmund Randolph. Its key points were a bicameral legislature, an executive chosen by the legistlature, and a judiciary also named by the legislature
new jersey plan
a framework for the Constitution proposed by a group of small states; its key points were a one-house legislature with one vote for each state, the establishment of the acts of Congress as the "supreme law" of the land, and a supreme judiciary with limited power.
great compromise
a decision made during the Constitutional Convention to give each state the same number of representatives in the Senate regardless of size; representation in the House was determined by population
three fifths compromise
Agreement reached at the Constitutional Convention stipulating that each slave was to be counted as three-fifths of a person for purposes of determining population for purposes of determining population for representation in the U.S. House of Representatives
separation of powers
way of dividing power among three branches of government in which members of the House of Representatives, members of the Senate, the president, and the federal courts are selected by and responsible to different constituencies
checks and balances
a governmental structure that gives each of the three branches of government some degree of oversight and control over the actions of the others
federal system
plan of government created in the U.S. constitution in which power is divided between the national government and the state governments and in which independent states are bound together under one national government
enumerated powers
Seventeen specific powers granted to Congress under Article I, section 8, of the U.S. Constitution; these powers include taxation, coinage of money, regulation of commerce, and the authority to provide for a national defense
necessary and proper clause
the final paragraph of Article I, section 8, of the U.S. Constitution, which gives Congress the authority to pass all laws "necessary and proper" to carry out the enumerated powers specified in the Constitution; also called the elastic clause
implied powers
powers derived from the enumerated powers and the necessary and proper clause. These powers are not stated specifically but are considered to be reasonably implied through the exercise of delegated powers
supremacy clause
portion of Article VI of the U.S. Constitution mandating that national law is supreme to (that is, supersedes) all other laws passed by the states or by any other subdivision of government.
federalists
those who favored a stronger national government and supported the proposed U.S. Constitution; later became the first U.S. political party.
anti federalists
those who favored strong state governments and a weak national government; opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution
the federalist papers
a series of 85 political papers written by John Jay, Alexander Hamilton,a nd James madison in support of ratification of the U.S. Constitution
bill of rights
the first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution
federal system
system of government where the national government and state governments share some powers, derive all authority from the people, and the powers of the national government are specified in the U.S. Constitution
unitary system
system of government where the local and regional governments derive all authority from a strong national government
10th amendment
the final part of the Bill of Rights that defines the basic principle of American federalism in stating: "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution. Nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.
reserve (or police) powers
powers reserved to the states by the 10th Amendment that lie at the foundation of a state's right to legislate for the public health and welfare of its citizens
concurrent powers
authority possessed by both the state and national governments that may be exercised concurrently as long as that power is not exclusively within the scope of national power or in conflict with national law
bill of attainder
a law declaring an act illegal without a judicial trial
ex post facto law
law passed after the fact, thereby making previously legal activity illegal and subject to current penalty; prohibited by the U.S. Constitution
full faith and credit clause
section of Article IV of the Constitution that ensures judicial decrees and contracts made in one state will be binding and enforceable in any other state.
privileges and immunities clause
part of Article IV of the Constitution guaranteeing that the citiyens of each state are afforded the same rights as citizens of all other states.
extradition clause
part of Article IV that requires states to extradite, or return, criminals to states where they have been convicted or are to stand trial.
interstate compacts
contracts between states that carry the force of law; generally now used as a tool to address multistate policy concerns
mcculloch v maryland 1819
the Supreme Court upheld the power of the national government and denied the right of a state to tax the federal bank using the Constitution's supremacy clause. The Court's broad interpretation of the necessary and proper clause paved the way for later rulings upholding expansive federal powers
gibbons v ogden 1824
the Supreme Court upheld broad congressional power to regulate interstate congressional power to regulate interstate commerce. The Court's broad interpretation of the Constitution's commerce clause paved the way for later rulings upholding expansive federal powers
dual federalism
the belief that having separate and equally powerful levels of government is the best arrangement
16th amendment
authorized Congress to enact a national income tax
17th amendment
made senators directly elected by the people; removed their selection from state legislatures
cooperative federalism
the relationship between the national and state governments that began with the New Deal
categorical grant
grant for which Congress appropriates funds for a specific purpose.
new federalism
federal/state relationship proposed by Reagan administration during the 1980s; hallmark is returning administrative powers to the state governments
block grant
broad grant with few strings attached; given to states by the federal government for specified activities, such as secondary education or health services
unfunded mandates
national laws that direct states or local governments to comply with federal rules or regulations (such as clean air or water standards) but contain little or no federal funding to defray the cost of meeting these requirements
preemption
a concept derived from the Constitution's supremacy clause that allows the national government to override or preempt state or local actions in certain areas
sovereign immunity
the right of a state to be free form lawsuit unless it gives permission to the suit. Under the 11th Amendment, all states are considered sovereign
political socialization
the process through which individuals acquire their political beliefs and values
public opinion
what the public thinks about a particular issue or set of issues at any point in time.
public opinion polls
interviews or surveys with samples of citizens that are used to estimate the feelings and beliefs of the entire populations
straw polls
unscientific surveys used to gauge public opinion on a variety of issues and policies
random sampling
a method of poll selection that gives each person in a group that same chance of being selected
stratified sampling
a variation of random sampling; census data are used to divide the country into four sampling regions. Sets of counties and standard metropolitan statistical areas are then randomly selected in proportion to the total national population
push polls
polls taken for the purpose of providing information on an opponent that would lead respondents to vote against that candidate
tracking polls
continuous surveys that enable a campaign to chart its daily rise or fall in support
exit polls
polls conducted at selected polling places on Election Day.
sampling error or margin of error
a measure of the accuracy of a public opinion poll.
political ideology
the coherent set of values and beliefs about the purpose and scope of government held by groups and individuals
mass media
the entire array of organizations through which information is collected and disseminated to the general public
news media
media providing the public with new information about subjects of public interest
yellow journalism
a form of newspaper publishing in vogue in the late nineteenth century that featured pictures, comics, color, and sensationalized, oversimplified news coverage
muckraking
a form of journalism, in vogue in the early twentieth century, concerned with reforming government and business conduct
print media
the traditional form of mass media, comprising newspapers, magazines, newsletters, and journals
broadcast media
television, radio, cable, and satellite services
new media
technologies, such as the Internet, that blur the line between media sources and create new opportunities for dissemination of news and other information.
network
an association of broadcast stations (radio or television) that share programming through a financial arrangement
affiliates
local television stations that carry the programming of a national network
wire service
an electronic delivery of news gathered by the news service's correspondents and sent to all member news media organizations
narrowcasting
targeting media programming at specific populations within society
blog
web-based journal entries that provide an editorial and news outlet for citizens.
content regulation
government attempts to regulate the substance of the mass media.
equal time rule
the rule that requires broadcast stations to sell air time equally to all candidates in a political campaign if candidates in a political campaign if they choose to sell it to any
fairness doctrine
rule in effect from 1949 to 1985 requiring broadcasters to cover events adequately and to present contrasting views on important public issues
new york times co v sullivan 1964
the Supreme Court concluded that "actual malice" must be proved to support a finding of libel against a public figure
framing
the process by which a news organization defines a political issue and consequently affects opinion about the issue