Racial group
a group that is set apart from other because of physical differences that have taken on social significance
Ethnic group
set apart from other primarily because its national origin or distinctive cultural patterns
Minority group
subordinate group whose members have significantly less control or power over their own lives that then member of a dominant or majority group have over theirs
Minority group five basic properties
unequal treatment, physical or cultural traits, ascribed status, solidarity, and in group marriage
Racial formation
a sociohistorical process in which categories are created, inhibited, transformed, and destroyed. In this process those who have power define groups based on a racist structure
Social construction of race
process by which people come to define a group as a race based in part by physical characteristics but also on historical economic, historic, and cultural factors
Stereotypes
unreliable generalizations about all members of a group that do not recognize individual differences within the group
Prejudice
negative attitude toward an entire category of people, often an ethnic or racial minority
Ethnocentrism
tendency to assume that one's own culture and way of life represent the norm or are superior to all others
Ethnocentric people
judge other cultures by the standards of their own group, which lead quite easily to prejudice against cultures they view as inferior
Racism
belief that one race is supreme and all others are innately inferior
Hate crime
criminal offense committed because of the offender's bias against a race, religion, ethnic group, national origin, or sexual orientation
Color blind racism
use of the principle of race neutrality to defend a racially unequal status quo. everyone should be treated equally
Discrimination
denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups because of prejudice or other arbitrary reasons
Glass ceiling
invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified individual in a work environment because of the individuals gender, race, or ethnicity
Institutional discrimination
denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals a groups that results from the normal operations of a society
Forms of institutional discrimination
only english be spoken in the workplace, law and medical schools accept white alumni, single parent families find it hard to find vacation time in the workplace
Affirmative action
positive efforts to recruit minority group members or women for jobs, promotions, and educational opportunities
Functionalist perspective on race and gender
racial prejudice and discrimination serve positive functions for dominant groups. 1. racist views provide moral justification for maintaining an unequal society that deprives the minority group 2. racist beliefs discourage subordinate minority from questioning it lowly status 3. racial myths suggest that any societal change would only bring greater poverty to the minority.
Four dysfunctions of racism
1. a society that practices discrimination fails to use the recourses of all individuals 2. Discrimination aggravates social problems such as poverty, delinquency, and crime 3. Society must invest a good deal of time and money to defend its barriers to the full participation of all members 4. Racial prejudice and discrimination often undercut goodwill and friendly diplomatic relations between nations
Conflict perspective on race and gender
economic structure as a central factor in the exploitation of minorities. prejudice and discrimination have harmful consequences
Exploitation theory
explain basis of racial subordination in the US. racism keeps minorities in low paying wages and dominant races in high paying wages.
Racial profiling
(fits both conflict perspective and labeling theory) any arbitrary action initiated by an authority based on race, ethnicity, or national origin rather than on a person's behavior
Contact hypothesis
states that in cooperative circumstances, interracial contact between people of equal status will cause them to become less prejudiced and to abandon old stereotypes
Summing up four perspectives on race and gender
1. functionalist: dominant majority benefits from the subordination of racial minorities 2. conflict: vested interests perpetuate racial inequality through economic exploitation 3. interactionist: cooperative interracial contacts can reduce hostility 4. labeling: people are profiled and stereotyped based on their racial and ethnic identity
Genocide
deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation
Inter-group relations four identifiable patterns
1. amalgamation 2. assimilation 3. segregation 4. pluralism
Amalgamation
happens when a majority group and a minority group combine to form a new group (melting pot)
Assimilation
process by which a person forsakes his or her own cultural tradition to become part of a different culture. generally practiced by a minority group member who wants to become part of a minority group
Segregation
physical separation of two groups of people in terms of residence, workplace, and social events
Pluralism
based on mutual respect for one another's cultures among the various groups in a society. this allows a minority group to express its own culture and still participate without prejudice in the larger society
Black power
rejected goal of assimilation into white society, wanted to create a black controlled political and economic institute
Anti semitism
anti Jewish prejudice
Symbolic ethnicity
emphasis on concerns such as ethnic food or political issues rather than on deeper ties to ones ethnic heritage
Gender roles
expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females
Multiple masculinities
men play a variety of gender roles including a nurturing caring role and an effeminate gay role in addition to their traditional role in society as dominating
Functionalist view of gender
gender differentiation has contributed to overall social stability. traditional gender roles as arising out of the need to establish a division of labor between marital partners
Instrumentality
emphasis on tasks, a focus on more distant goals, and a concern for the external relationship between one's family and other social institutions
Expressiveness
denotes concern for the maintenance of harmony and the internal emotional affairs of the family.
Conflict view on gender
relationship between males and females has been unequal. see gender difference as a reflection of the subjugation of one group by another group
Matrix of domination
illustrates how several social factors regularly converge to create a cumulative impact on a person's social standing
Summary of four perspectives on gender
1. functionalist: gender differentiation contributes to social stability 2. conflict: gender inequality is rooted in the female-male power relationship 3. feminist: women's subjugation is integral to society and social structure 4. interactionist: gender distinctions and "doing gender" are reflected in people's everyday behavior
Sexism
ideology that one sex is superior to the other
Institutional discrimination
defined as the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups that results from the normal operations of a society
Second shift
describe the double burden that many women face and few men share
Feminism
belief in social, economic, and political equality for women