Less Developed Countries
Struggle with economic issues: poverty, low GNP, trade dependency, and weak infrastructure. Have experienced political and economic change but do not have characteristics of advanced democracies. (Nigeria)
Newly industrialized Countries
Many countries in Asia and Latin America that have shown rapid economic growth and democratization in the past few decades, gaining characteristics of advanced democracies and a more stable economy, such as South Korea. (Mexico and Iran)
compressed modernity
rapid economic and political change
Purchasing Power Parity (PPP
a statistical tool that estimates the buyingpower of income across different countries by using prices in the US as a benchmark. Better than per capita GNP because it takes into consideration the fact that some countries are more expensive to live in than others. The highest are advanced democracies, while other systems vary widely
Per Capita GNP
divides the total market value of all goods and services produced by the population of the country
Primary Sector
takes natural resourses from the environment, agriculture, raising animals, fishing, forestry, and mining, largest in low income, pre industrial nations
Secondary Sector
industry. transforms raw materials into manufactured goods. grows quickly as societies industrializes. includes refining petroleum into gasoline and metals into tools and automobiles
Tertiary Sector
Services. Grows with industrialization and dominant in post industrial societies. Includes construction, trade, finance, real estate, private services, government, and transportation.
Neocolonialism
An unequal relationship with indirect forms of imperialism; an indirect from of imperialism in which powerful countries overly influence the economies of less developed countries
Westernization Model
Britain was the first to develop its industry, other European nations and the US adopted this model of development. This model holds that LDCs that wish for their economy to grow should westernize, adopting this same model that other industrial nations have taken. Adopted by more conservative governments
Dependency Theory
Holds that economic development in LDCs is hindered by being exploited by industrial nations. An extension of Marxism, with countries rather than social classes. Favored by liberal governments, leads to experimentation with socialism, trying to narrow the gap between rich and poor by nationalizing industry
Import Substitution
Government policy of stimulating LDC economy that involves limiting import through setting quotas or imposing heavy taxes, incentivizing people to buy local, stimulating domestic business, which will then develop to the point that they can compete in the international market. Based on beleif that government must create more positive conditions for the development of local industry. Was used widely in Latin America, then later in Africa and Asia.
Export-oriented industrialization
Strategy of directly integrating the country's economy into the global economy by concentrating on economic production that can find a place in international markets, by making the product better and cheaper and exporting it. Has been used by the "Asian Tigers" Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea, and Hong Kong with electronics and automobiles
Democratization
The process of developing a political system in which power is exercised either directly or indirectly by the people. A major political trend of the 20th and early 21st century. The existence of competitive elections (regular, free, fair) is a major qualifier.
Liberal Democracies
Have characteristics beyond regular, fair, free, competitive elections, such as civil liberties, rule of law, neutrality of the judiciary, open civil society, and civilian control of the military Represented by Great Britain
Government
the leadership and institutions that make policy decisions for the country
Politics
the struggle in any group for power that will give a person or people the ability to make decisions for the larger group
Empirical Data
factual statements and statistics
Civil Society
the way that citizens organize and define themselves and their interests. Organizations outside the state that help people define and advance their own interests. Usually strong in liberal democracies where individual freedom is valued and protected. In a way checks the power of the state and helps to prevent the tyranny of the majority.
Informal Politics
takes into consideration not only the ways that politicians operate outside their formal powers, but also the impact that beliefs, values, and actions of ordinary citizens have on policy making
Communist and Post-Communist Countries
States that have sought to create a system that limits individual freedoms in order to divide wealth more equally. Represented by Russia and China
State
a unified political entity, a country
institution
a stable, long lasting organization that helps to turn political ideas into policy. Is self-perpetuating and valued for its own sake. Includes bureaucracies, legislatures, judicial systems, and political parties
sovereignty
The right to rule. The ability to carry out actions or policies within borders independently from interference either from the inside or outside.
nation
a group of people that is bound together by a common political entity
nationalism
The sense of belonging and identity that distinguishes one nation form another. Pride in one's people and the belief that they have a unique political destiny.
Regime
The rules that a state sets and follow in exerting power.The fundamental rules and norms of politics, embodiying long term goals regarding individual freedom and collective equality, where power should reside, and the use of that power
Indirect Democracy
Democracy in which representatives of the public are responsible for government decision-making.
Direct Democracy
Democracy that allows the public to participate directly in government decision-making. When individuals have immediate say over many decisions that the government makes
Parliamentary System
Citizens vote for legislative representatives, who vote for the leaders of the executive branch. Fusion of powers between the legislature and executive. Characterized by a separation in the executive branch between the head of state and the head of government
Parliamentary Sovereignty
when the legislative body has absolute sovereignty, meaning it is supreme to all other government institutions (including the executive or judicial bodies). Furthermore, it implies that the legislative body may change or repeal any prior legislative acts, contrasts with notions of judicial review, where a court may overturn legislation deemed unconstitutional
Head of State
a role that symbolizes the power and nature of the regime. The executive role that symbolizes and represents the people both nationally and internationally. An example would be the Queen of England, Elizabeth II
Head of Government
The executive role that deals with the everyday tasks of running the state, directing the country's decision making process.
Presidential System
A democratic system where citizens vote for legislative representatives and for executive branch leaders, the legislative and executive branches function under the separation of powers, the role of head of state and head of government is given to one person, the president, elected to lead the executive branch within a system of checks and balances.
Checks and Balances
system between the legislature and executive (and sometimes judicial) characteristic of presidential systems that ensures that power is shared and that one branch does not dominate the others by having each branch have an independent base of authority recognized by the other branches. Can cause slower policy making because the one branch is able to challenge the others
Semi-Presidential System
a system that combines elements of the presidential and parliamentary systems, where a prime minister coexists with a president who is directly elected by the people and holds a significant degree of power. Russia's 1993 constitution calls for this type of system(but the president has a disproportionate amount of power)
Authoritarianism
A political system in which a small group of individuals exercises power over the state without being constitutionally responsible to the public. Decisions are made by political elites without much input from citizens. Generally have a tightly controlled economy. Restriction of civil rights and liberties Rule by a single dictator, a hereditary monarch, small group of aristocrats, or single political party.
Elites
Those that hold political power, rule in authoritarian regimes without much input from the citizens
Communism
The base of some authoritarian regimes, based on theories of Karl Marx that were altered by Vladimir Lenin. Involves communist party control of everything from government to economy to social life. A political-economic system in which all wealth and property are shared so as to eliminate exploitation, oppression, and, ultimately, the need from political institutions, such as the state.
State Corporatism
A method of cooptation whereby authoritarian regimes create or sanction a limited number of organizations to present the interests of the public and restrict those not set up by or approved by the state. Makes the government appear to be less authoritarian but in reality the practice eliminates any input from groups not sanctioned or created by the states, but many citizens participate willingly because it is their only way to connect to the government. example in Mexico, PEMEX, the state run group that included all oil refineries.
patron-client system
System present in Mexico where the government provides reciprocal favors and services to their supporters. A system in which the state provides specific benefits or favors to a single person or small group in return for public support. Relies on individual patronage rather than organizations that serve a large group of people. Seen in China, Russia, Mexico, and Nigeria
Totalitarianism
Regimes that generally have a strong ideological goal. An authoritarian system with a strong ideology that seeks to transform fundamental aspects of the state, society, and the economy using a wide array of organizations and application of force.
Military Rule
A form of nondemocratic rule where one or more military officials rule, often brought to power by a coup d'etat. Often restrict civil rights and liberties, prevent political parties from forming, and usually lack in a specific ideology. Leaders have no charismatic or traditional authority, but join forces with the state bureaucracy to form an authoritarian regime. Prevalent in Latin America, Africa, and parts of Asia.
Coup d'etat
forced takeover of the government. A type of change that replaces the leadership of a country with new leaders, typically occuring in states where institutions are weak .
Corporatism
A method through which business, labour, and other interest groups bargain with the state over economic policy. An arrangement in which government officials interact with people/groups outside the government before they set policy. These outside contacts are generally business and labor leaders.
Cooptation
The process whereby individuals are brought into a beneficial relationship with the state, making them dependent on the state for certain rewards. A method a regime uses to get support from citizens.
Pluralism
a situation in which power is split among many groups that compete for the chance to influence the government's decision making. An important way that citizens may express their needs to the government.
Democratic Corporatism/neocoporatism
Different from pluralism. The interest groups are institutionalized through recognition by the state, new groups can form only if the state allows it. Organizations develop institutionalized and legally binding links with the state agencies so that the groups become semi-public agencies, acting on behalf of the state.
legitimacy
a value whereby an institution is accepted by the public as right and proper, thus giving it authority and power
Traditional Legitimacy/Authority
Legitimacy that accepts aspects of politics because they have been institutionalized over a long period of time. Tradition determines who should rule and how. Monarchy
Charismatic Legitimacy/Authority
Legitimacy built on the force of ideas embodied by an individual leader. (E.g. - Napoleon) is usually short lived, collapses once leader is gone.
Rational-legal Legitimacy/Authority
Legitimacy based on a system of laws and procedures that are highly institutionalized. Carry across generations of individual leaders. People obey the leaders because they believe in the rules that brought them to office, based on the rule of law that supersedes the actions and statements of individual rulers.
Common Law
based on tradition, past practices, and legal precedents set by the courts through interpretations of statutes, legal legislation, and past rulings. Comes especially from English influence. (UK)
Code Law
based on a comprehensive system of written rules of law divided into commercial, civil, and criminal codes. (China, Mexico, Russia)
Factors that support legitimacy
1) Economic Well-being 2) Historical tradition/longevity 3) Charismatic leadership 4) Nationalism/shared political culture 5) Satisfaction with the government's performance/responsiveness.
Political culture
the collection of political beliefs, values, practices, and institutions that the government is based on. The basci norms for political activity in a society
Social Capital
the amount of reciprocity and trust that exists among the citizens and the state
Consensual political culture
citizens tend to agree on how decisions are made, what issues should be addressed, and how problems should be solved. accepts the legitimacy of the regime and solutions to major problems
Conflictual Political Culture
Citizens are sharply divided on the legitimacy of the regime and solutions to major problems. (Ideological and religious differences) When a country is deeply divided for a long time, political subcultures develop and make effective rule difficult
Political Ideologies
the sets of political values held by individuals regarding the basic goals of government and politics
Liberalism (ideology)
Political Ideology that places emphasis on individual political and economic freedom. Value freedom of speech, religion, and association, and that citizens have the right to disagree with state decisions as well as influence the the decision of leaders.
Communism
Political ideology that values equality over freedom. Rejects the idea that personal freedom will ensure prosperity for the majority, but instead believes that the inevitable result of the competition for scarce resources is that a small group will eventually come to control both the government and the economy
Socialism
Political ideology that shares the value of equality and freedom. Accepts and promote private ownership and free market principles but believe that the state has a strong role in regulating the economy and providing benefits to the public in order to ensure some measure of equality.
Fascism
Political ideology that rejects the value of equality and of individual freedom and accepts the idea that people and groups exist in degrees of inferiority and superiority. The state has the right and the responsibility to mold the society and economy and to eliminate obstacles that might weaken them. The powerful authoritarian state is the engine that makes superiority possible.
Reform
A type of change that does not advocate the overthrow of basic institutions, but instead want to change some of the methods that political and economic leaders use to reach goals that the society generally accepts.
Revolution
A type of change that involves either a major revision or an overthrow of existing institutions, impacting more than one area of life.
Radicalism
An attitude toward change that believes that rapid, dramatic changes need to be made in the existing society. Usually think that the current system cannot be saved and must be overturned and replaced with something better.
Liberalism (attitude toward change)
An attitude toward change that supports reform and gradual change rather than revolution. Do not believe that the political or economic systems are broken, but they do believe they need to be repaired or improved. Eventual transformation, but gradually
Conservatism
An attitude toward change that tend to see change as disruptive and emphasize the fact that it sometimes brings unforeseen outcomes. They consider the state and the regime to be very important sources of law and order that might be threatened if significant changes are made, legitimacy and basic values and beliefs of society may be undermined
Reactionary beliefs
An attitude toward change that oppose revolution and reform, but find the current status-quo unacceptable, wanting to restore the political, social, and economic institutions that existed in an earlier era.
Illiberal Democracies
Countries that have regular, free, fair competitive elections but are missing civil liberties, rule of law, neutrality of the judiciary, open civil society, and civilian control of the military.
Third wave" of democratization
term Samuel Huntington uses to describe the trend of democratization in the modern world that began in the 1970s. Characterized by the defeat of dictatorships and totalitarian rulers in South America, Eastern Europe, and parts of Africa.
Reasons for the "third wave" of democratization
loss of legitimacy, expansion of an urban middle class in developing countries, a new emphasis on human rights by the UN and EU, the "snowball effect" when one country in a region becomes democratic and influences others to do so.
Movement Toward Market Economies
A trend of the 20th and 21st centuries that has a debated relationship to democratization, shown by evidence in Mexico and China.
Command Economy
An economy with socialist principles of centralized planning and state ownership; economic system in which economic decisions about production and distribution are made by some central authority
Market economy
an economic system based on free enterprise, in which businesses are privately owned, and production and prices are determined by supply and demand
Mixed economy
an economy in which private enterprise exists in combination with a considerable amount of government regulation and promotion; combines elements of the command and market economies
Factors that promote movement toward economic activities
Belief that the government is too big (Thatcher and Reagan) and lack of success of command economies (USSR + satellites fail, China slowly infusing capitalism - "socialist market economy")
Marketization
The term that describes the state's recreation of a market in which property, labor, goods, and services can all function in a competitive environment to determine their value
Privatization
the transfer of state owned property into private ownership
Revival of Ethnic or Cultural Politics
A trend of the 20th and 21st century. A force of fragmentation, divisions based on ethnic or cultural identity, the world is divided into cultural regions.
social cleavages
divisions in society outside the realm of politics (social class, ethnicity, religion, regional)
Cross-cutting cleavages
divide society into many potential groups that may conflict on one issue but cooperate on another and tends to keep social conflict to moderate levels
Coinciding cleavages
Occur when every dispute aligns the same groups against each other.
The Tyranny of the Majority
the tendency in democracies to allow majority rule to neglect the rights and liberties of minorities.
Global cosmopolitanism
a universal political order that draws its identity and values from everywhere, that is argued to be emerging the modern world through NGOs
NGOs (Non-governmental organizations)
how global civil society takes shape, national and international groups, independent of any state, that pursue policy objectives and foster public participation.
Political Institutions
structures of a political system that carry out the work of governing
Unitary System
Political system that concentrates all policy making powers in one central geographic place, most countries have this system
Con-federal System
Political system that spreads the power among many sub units and has a weak central government
Federal System
Political system that divides the power between the central government and the sub-units
Supranational Organizations
Organizations that go beyond national boundaries, reflecting a trend toward integration, encouraging states to pool their sovereignty in order to gain political, economic, and social standing
Globalization
an integration of social, environmental, economic, and cultural activities of nations that has resulted from increasing international contacts
Fragmentation
a counter trend to globalization, a tendency for people to base their loyalty on ethnicity, language, religion, or cultural identity
centripetal forces
a unifying force that bind together people of a state. (nationalism, Institutions such as schools, religion and the armed forces) promotes loyalty and commitment
centrifugal forces
destabilize the government and encourage division within the country, can result in devolution
devolution
the tendency to decentralize decision making to regional governments (Scottish and Welsh Parliaments)
Ethnic/Cultural devolution
based on ethnonationalism, the tendency for an ethnic group to see itself as a distinct nation with a right to autonomy or independence (Quebec, Wales/Scotland/Ireland/England, Yugoslavia)
Economic devolution
regional inequalities in economic status cause devolution (north Italy and Catalonia in Spain)
Spatial devolution
geographical barriers cause devolutionary movements
Cabinet Coalition
where several parties join forces and are represented in different cabinet posts, forms in countries with a multi-party system where there is no clear majority
Characteristics of Bureaucracies (Weber)
Hierarchical structure, task specialization, extensive rules, clear goals, the merit principle, impersonality
discretionary power
the power to make small decisions in implementing legislative and executive decisions, given to bureaucrats
Patronage System
political supporters receive jobs in return for their assistance in getting specific candidates elected
technocrats
highly-educated bureaucrats who make decisions based on their perceptions of technical issues rather than political ones; often found in Latin American countries under a military regime
Common Characteristics of Bureaucracies
Non elected positions, impersonal, efficient structures, formal qualifications for jobs, hierarchical organization, inefficiency as it becomes bigger.
Constitutional Courts
serve to defend democratic principles of a country against infringement by both private citizens and the government; the highest judicial body that rules on the constitutionality of laws and other government actions
Judicial Review
the mechanism that allows courts to review laws and executive actions for their constitutionality.
Linkage Institutions
Groups such as political parties, interest groups, print and electronic media the connect the government to its citizens
Electoral Systems
the rules that decide how votes are cast, counted, and translated into seats in a legislature
First-past-the-post system
Electoral system where constituencies are divided into single-member districts in which candidates compete for a dingle representative's seat. Also called the plurality system or winner take all system. Used in the US, UK, and India
Proportional Representation System
Electoral System that creates multi-member districts in which more than one legislative seat is contested in each district. Votors cast their ballot for a party rather than for a candidate and the percentage of votes a party receives determines how many seats the party will gain in the legislature. Used in Italy and South Africa
Mixed Electoral System
Electoral system that combines first past the post and proportional representation, with some seats elected from single member districts and some by proportional representation
Referendum
A national vote called by a government to address a specific proposal, often a change to the constitution
Plebiscite
a variation of a referendum; a ballot to consult public opinion in a non-binding way
Initiative
a vote on a policy that is instituted by the people
interest group pluralism
Describes interest groups in Western industrial democracies that guard their independence by selecting their own leaders and raising their own funds, these autonomous groups compete with each other and with government for influence over state policies
Gross Domestic Product
all the goods and services produced by a country's economy in a given year, excluding income citizens and groups earn outside the country
Gross National Product
GDP + income citizens earned outside the country
Gini Index
a mathematical formula that measures the amount of economic inequality in a society. a statistical formula that measures the amount inequality in a society; its scale ranges from 0 to 100, where 0 corresponds to perfect equality and 100 to perfect inequality.
The Human Development Index
measures the well-being of a country's people by factoring in adult literacy, life expectancy, GDP, and educational enrollment
Abstract Review
Judicial Review that allows the constitutional court to rule on questions that do not arise from actual legal diputes
Advanced Democracy
A country with institutionalized democracy and a high lebel of economic development
Anarchism
A political ideology that stresses the elimination of the state and private property as a way to achieve both freedom and equality for all
Autonomy
The ability of the state to wield its power independently of the public
Behavioralism
A movement within political science during the 1950s and 1960s to develop general theories about political behavior that could be applied across all countries
Bureaucratic Authoritarianism
a system in which the state bureaucracy and the military share a belief that a technocratic leadership, focused on rational, onjective, and technical expertise, can solve problems of the country without public participation
Capacity
The ability of the state to carry out basic tasks such as defending territory, making and enforcing rules, collecting taxes, and managing the economy.
Capitalism
A system of production based on private property and free markets
Central Bank
The state institution that controls how much money is flowing through the economy, as well as how much it costs to borrow money in that economy
Central committee
the legislature like body of a communist party
Central Planning
A communist economic system in which the state explicitly allocates resources by planning what should be produced and in what amounts, the final prices of goods, and where they should be sold
Citizenship
An individual's relationship to the state, wherein citizens swear allegiance to that state in return is obliged to provide rights to those citizens
Civil Rights
Individual rights that are created by the constitution and the political elite
clientelism
a process whereby the state co-opts members of the public by providing specific benefits or favors to a single person or a small group in return for public support
Comparative Advantage
The ability of one country to produce a particular good or service more efficiently relative to other countries' efficiency in producing the same good or service
Concrete Review
Judicial review that allows the constitution court to rule on the basis of actual legal disputes brought before it
Crony Capitalism
An economic system that shifts valuable state assets and resources into the hands of a small number of elites closely connected to the government
Democratic Deficit
Loss of direct democratic control resulting from the shifting of state capacity to highly autonomous supranational organizations
Economic Liberalism
Changes consistent with liberalism that aim to limit the power of the state and increase the power of the market and private property in an economy
Failed State
A state so weak that its political structures collapse, leading to anarchy and violence
Foreign Direct Investment
The purchase of assets in a country by a foreign firm
Glasnost
Openness; The policy of political liberalization implemented in the Soviet Union in the late 1980s
Hyperinflation
Inflation of more than 50 percent a month for more than two months in a row
Inflation
An outstripping of supply by demand, resulting in an increase in the general price levels of goods and services and the resulting loss of value in a country's currency.
Informal Economy
Segment of the economy that is not regulated or taxed by the state
Integration
A process by which states pool their sovereignty, surrendering some individual powers in order to gain shared political, economic, or societal benefits
intergovernmental system
a system in which two or more states cooperate on issues
Laissez-Faire
The principle that the economy should be "allowed to do" what it wishes; a liberal system of minimal state interference in the economy
Legislature
Branch of government concerned with making laws
Mercantilism
A political-economic system in which national economic power is paramount and the domestic economy is viewed as an instument that exists primarily to serve the needs of the state
Meritocracy
Political authority based on intelligence, talent, and achievement
Microcredit
A system in which small loans are channeled to the poor through borrowing groups whose members jointly take responsibility for repayment
Modern
characterized as secular, rational, materialistic, technological, and bureaucratic, and placing a greater emphasis on individual freedom than on the past
Modernization Theory
A theory asserting that, as society developed, they would take on a set of characteristics including democracy and capitalism
Multinational Corporation
firms that produce, distribute, and market their goods or services in more than one country
Neocorporatism
a system of social democratic policy making in which a limited number of organizations representing business and labor work with the state to set economic policy
Nomenklatura
politically sensitive or influential jobs in the state, society, or the economy that are staffed by people chosen or approved by the communist party
Nontariff barriers
policies and regulations used to limit imports through methods other than taxation
one party rule
rule by one political party, with other parties banned or excluded form power
Party-State
a political system in which power flows directly from the ruling political party (usually a communist party) to the state, bypassing governmental structures
Patrimonialism
an arrangement whereby a ruler depends on a collection of supporters within the state who gain direct benefits in return for enforcing the ruler's will
Perestroika
Literally, restructuring. The policy of political and economic liberalization implemented in the Soviet Union in the late 1980s
Personal rule
rule by a single leader, with no clear regime or rules constraining that leadership
Personality Cult
promotion of the image of an authoritarian leader not merely as a political figure but as someone who embodies the spirit of the nation and possesses endowments of wisdom and strength far beyond those of the average individual, and is thus portrayed in a quasi-religious manner
Politburo
The top policy making and executive body of the communist party
Political attitude
descriptions of views regarding the speed and method with which political changes should take place in a given society
Post-industrialism
the shift during the last half century from an economic based primarily on industry and manufacturing to one in which the majority of people are employed in the service sector
Prime Ministerial System
a political system in which the roles of head of state and head of government are assigned to separate executive individuals
Quasi-democracy
Rule by an elected leadership through procedures of questionable democratic legitimacy
Quota
Nontariff barriers that limit the quantity of a good that can be imported into a country
Rent seeking
a process in which political leaders essentially rent out parts of the state to their patrons, who as a result control public goods that would otherwise be distributed in a nonpolitical manner
Shock Therapy
A process of rapid marketization
Structural adjustment program
a policy of economic liberalization adopted in exchange for financial support from liberal international organizations; typically includes privatizing state run firms, ending subsidies, reducing tariffs barriers, shrinking the size of the state, and welcoming foreign investment
Maastricht Treaty/ Treaty of the European Union
signed in 1992, effective 1 November 1993, signed by the members of the European Community; created the European Union and led to the creation of the single European currency, the euro