Define a study.
When researchers answer a question through disciplined research. AKA investigation
What are the two sets of people involved in studies with humans?
-Researcher/investigator: Those who do the research
-Those who provide the information
What are the people who provide information in a quantitative study called? What about qualitative?
-Quantitative: Subject/Participant/respondent
-Qualitative: Study participant/informant/key informant
What are the terms to describe abstractions of particular aspects of human characteristics and behaviors? In what kind of study is each term used (quantitative or qualitative).
-Quantitative: concepts, constructs, variables
-Qualitative: Phenomena, concepts, constructs
Give 3 examples of concepts/phenomena.
Pain, fatigue, resilience
When would "construct" be used in replace of "phenomena" or "concept"? Give an example.
Construct refers to a slightly more complex abstraction that is deliberately invented. Ex. self care
Define a theory.
An explanation of some aspect of reality. Concepts are knitted together into a coherent system to describe or explain some aspect of the world.
What is the role of a theory in quantitative research?
Researchers start with a theory and, using deductive reasoning, make predictions about how phenomena would behave in the real world if they were true. The specific predictions are then tested in a study, and the results are used to support or challenge th
What is the role of a theory in qualitative research?
Theory is often a product of the research. The investigators use information from study participants inductively to develop a theory rooted in the participants experiences.
What is a variable? Which kind of study utilizes variables?
A variable is any quality of a person, group, or situation that is different from another person, group, or situation or takes on different meanings. Quantitative researches utilizes variables and seeks to understand how or why things vary, and to learn h
Are variables always inherent human characteristics or an variables be created? Give examples.
-Characteristics: weight, anxiety, fatigue
-Created: A researcher can test the effectiveness of PCA compared to IM analgesia in relieving pain after surgery. Some patients would be given PCA, some would be given IM.
How can variables be represented (3 ways)? Give examples.
-On a continuum: age
-Few values: number of children
-Categories: blood type
Differentiate between independent and dependent variables. Which part of PICO do these variables correspond to?
-Independent: the presumed cause, I (intervention, influence, or exposure) and C (comparison)
-Dependent: the presumed effect, O (outcome), what researchers want to understand, explain, or predict
Give 2 examples of studies involving dependent and independent variables.
-Researchers investigate the extent to which lung cancer (dependent variable) depends on smoking (independent variable).
-Investigators examine the extent to which patients pain (dependent variable) depends on different nursing actions (independent variab
When it does not make sense to infer a cause and effect connection between dependent and independent variables, what else can these terms be used to describe? Give an example.
Direction of influence. If we compared levels of depression (DV) among men and women (IV) diagnosed with pancreatic cancer and found men to be more depressed, we could not conclude that depression was caused by gender. Instead, we could say that the direc
Are variables inherently dependent or independent? Explain with an example.
No, a dependent variable in one study may be an independent variable in another study and vice versa.
-Ex: Study 1 examines the effect of an exercise intervention (independent) on the development of osteoporosis (dependent). Study 2 investigates the effec
Differentiate between setting, study sites, and multisite studies. Give examples of each.
-Setting: Types of place where information is gathered (Hospitals, homes)
-Study Site: the specific location for the research (Haitian neighborhood in Miami)
-Multisite study: multiple study sites are used to offer a larger and more diverse sample of part
Differentiate between a conceptual definition and an operational definition of a concept.
-Conceptual: The abstract or theoretical meaning of a concept being studied, even if it is a seemingly straightforward term.
-Operational: the operations (measurements) a researcher must perform to measure the concept and collect the desired information.
Explain why creating and adopting specific conceptual definitions is important. Give an example.
A specific conceptual definition must be defined because there could be multiple definitions associated with one term. For example, the concept of caring has 5 categories of conceptual definitions:
-As a human trait
-A moral imperative
-An affect
-An inte
What is the role of a conceptual definition in a qualitative study versus that in a quantitative study.
-Qualitative: They may be a major end product, reflecting an intent to have the meaning of concepts defined by those being studied.
-Quantitative: Researchers must define concepts at the beginning because they must decide how the variables will be observe
Give an example of the operational definition of weight.
-The amount that a person weighs in pounds to the nearest full pound (as opposed to other units such as grams)
-Measured using a digital scale with subjects full undressed after 10 hours of fasting
Give an example of the operational definition of anxiety.
-If the conceptual definition was Physiologic affects of anxiety, operational definition would involve measuring pulse rate
-If the conceptual definition was Physiologic affects of anxiety, operational definition would involve assessing scores on paper an
What is data? Differentiate between the terms data and datum.
The pieces of information researchers collect in a study
-Singular: datum
-Plural: data
What kind of data do quantitative and qualitative researchers gather?
-Quantitative: numerical values
-Qualitative: narrative/verbal
Give an example of a researcher collecting quantitative data regarding depression in 3 subjects.
-Researcher: "thinking about the past week, how depressed would you say you have been on a scale from 0 to 10, where 0 means not at all and 10 means the most possible?"
-Subject 1: "9"
-Subject 2: "0"
-Subject 3: "4
Give an example of a researcher collecting qualitative data regarding depression in 3 subjects.
-Researcher: "Tell me about how you've been feeling lately- have you felt sad or depressed at all, or have you generally been in good spirits?"
-Participant 1: "Well, actually, I've been pretty depressed lately to tell you the truth. I wake up each mornin
What is a relationship?
A bond or connection between variables.
What are the two types of relationships which quantitative researchers seek to understand?
-Causal: cause and effect
-Associative: functional
Give an example of a causal relationship.
Weight is the dependent variable. Height, caloric intake, exercise are independent variables. For each independent variable, we can make a prediction about its relationship to weight.
-Taller people will weigh more than shorter people
-People who consume
In regards to relationships, what kind of information do qualitative researchers seek?
They seek patterns of association as a way of illuminating the underlying meaning and dimensionality of the phenomena of interest. Patterns of interconnected concepts are identified
What are the two major classes of quantitative research?
-Experimental: researchers actively introduce an intervention or treatment, most often to address therapy questions and determine causal relationships
-Nonexperimental: researchers are bystanders and collect data without introducing changes or treatments,
Give an example of experimental research. What is this type of research called in medical research?
-A researcher gave bran flakes to one group of subjects and prune juice to another to evaluate which method facilitated elimination more effectively
-Called clinical trials
Give an example of nonexperimental research. What is this type of research called in medical research?
-A researcher compared elimination patters of two groups whose regular eating patters differed
-Called observational research
List the three main disciplinary traditions of qualitative research.
-Grounded theory research
-Phenomenological research:
-Ethnographic research
Explain grounded theory research, including its focus, major components, and ultimate goal.
-Focus is on a developing social experience, which is defined as the social and psychological phases that characterize a particular event or episode
-Major component is the discovery of a core variable that is central in explaining what is going on in tha
What kind of qualitative research is the following study?: Neill studied how families manage acute childhood illnesses at home, and the role that felt or enacted criticism play in parents help seeking behaviors.
Grounded theory research
Explain phenomenological research, including what kinds of questions this type of researcher would ask.
-Focus is on the lived experiences of humans
-An approach to thinking about what life experiences of people are like and what they mean
-Ask "what is the essence of this phenomenon as experienced by these people" or "what is the meaning of the phenomenon
What kind of qualitative research is the following study?: McCloud studied the lived experiences of undergoing vitreorential day surgery in an Australian public hospital.
Phenomenological
Explain ethnographic research, including its focus, ultimate goal, and the type of work involved.
-Provides a framework for studying the patterns, lifeways, and experiences of a defined cultural group in a holistic fashion
-Involves engaging in fieldwork and participating to the extent possible in the life of the culture under study
-Strive to learn f
What kind of qualitative research is the following study?: Emilsdottir conducted extensive fieldwork in a nursing home in Iceland to examine nurses care of the dying elderly.
Ethnographic
What are the 5 phases in a quantitative study?
-Conceptual phase
-Design and planing phase
-Empirical phase
-Analytic phase
-Dissemination phase
What skills are utilized during the conceptual phase of a quantitative study?
Creativity, deductive reasoning, and a grounding in existing research evidence on the topic of interest
What is the first step in the conceptual phase of a quantitative study? Include questions that must be asked during this step.
Formulating/delimiting the problem:
-Identify research problem
-Formulate good research questions
-Attend to substantive issues (is this problem important?)
-Attend to theoretical issues (is there a conceptual context to enrich understanding of this probl
What is the second step in the conceptual phase of a quantitative study?
Reviewing related literature:
-Strive to understand what is already known about the topic before any data are collected
What is the third step in the conceptual phase of a quantitative study?
Undertaking clinical fieldwork:
-Spend time in relevant clinical settings
-Discuss the topic with clinicians
-Observe current practices
What is the fourth step in the conceptual phase of a quantitative study? What is the purpose of this step?
Defining the framework and developing conceptual definitions:
-Findings may have broader significance and utility
-Provides a clear vision of the concepts under study
What is the fifth and final step in the conceptual phase of a quantitative study?
Formulating hypotheses:
-State researchers deductively derived expectations about relationships between study variables
-Predictions of the relationships expected to be observed in the study data
Explain the importance of formulating a question and a hypothesis in a quantitative study. How are hypotheses tested?
The question identifies the concepts of interest and asks how they may be related, a hypothesis is the predicted answer. Most quantitative studies are designed to test hypotheses through statistical analysis.
What skills are utilized in the design and planning phase of a quantitative study?
Decision making skills, flexibility
What is the first step in the designing and planning phase of a quantitative study (the 6th step overall)? What type of questions need to be asked during this step?
Selecting a research design:
-The overall plan for obtaining answers to the research question and for handling challenges that can undermine study evidence
-Highly structured and controlled
-Goal of minimizing bias
-How often will data be collected?
-What
What is the second step in the designing and planning phase of a quantitative study (the 7th step overall)? What type of questions need to be asked during this step?
Developing protocols for the intervention:
-Specify exactly what the intervention will entail and what the alternative condition would be
-Who would administer the intervention?
-How frequently and over how long a period will the treatment last?
Which step is essential in experimental research, but not in nonexperimental research?
Step 2 of the design and planning phase/ step 7 overall: developing protocols for the intervention
What is the third step in the designing and planning phase of a quantitative study (the 8th step overall)?
Identifying the population:
-Know what characteristics the study participants should possess
-Clarify the group to whom study results can be generalized
Differentiate between a population and a sample.
-Population: all the individuals or objects with common, defining characteristics
-Sample: a subset of the population, which researchers usually collect data from
What is the fourth step in the designing and planning phase of a quantitative study (the 9th step overall)?
Designing the sampling plan:
-Specifies how the sample will be selected and how many subjects there will be
What is the fifth step in the designing and planning phase of a quantitative study (the 10th step overall)?
Specifying methods to measure variables:
-Find the best methods to measure research variables accurately
What are the 3 primary methods of quantitative data collection?
-Self reports: interviews and questionnaires
-Observations: watching and recording peoples behaviors
-Biophysiologic measurements: thermometer, bp, pulse, etc
What is the sixth step in the designing and planning phase of a quantitative study (the 11th step overall)?
Developing methods to protect human/animal rights:
-Procedures need to be developed to ensure that the study adheres to ethical principles
What is the seventh step in the designing and planning phase of a quantitative study (the 12th step overall)?
Finalizing the research plan:
-Perform tests to ensure that procedures will work smoothly
-Evaluate readability of written materials to see if participants with low reading skills can comprehend them
-Have plan critiqued by reviewers to obtain feedback be
What is the first step in the empirical phase of a quantitative study (13th step overall)?
Collecting the data:
-Follow preestablished plan which specifies how to train data collection staff, procedures to actually collect data, and for recording information
What is the second step in the empirical phase of a quantitative study (14th step overall)?
Preparing the data for analysis:
-Coding the data: translating verbal data into numeric form
-Transferring data from written documents onto computer files
Give an example of coding data.
Coding gender information as "1" for females and "2" for males
What is the first step in the analytic phase of a quantitative study (15th step overall)?
Analyzing the data:
-Using statistical analysis (both simple and complex procedures)
What is the second step in the analytic phase of a quantitative study (16th step overall)?
Interpreting results:
-Making sense of study results and examining their implications
-Explain findings in light of prior evidence, theory, and clinicial experience, and in light of the adequacy of the methods they used in the study
What is the first step in the dissemination phase of a quantitative study (17th step overall)?
Communicating the findings:
-Preparing a research report that can be shared with others
What is the second step in the dissemination phase of a quantitative study (18th step overall)?
Putting the evidence into practice:
-Develop recommendations on how the evidence could be used in practice
What are the two major activities in a qualitative study?
-Conceptualizing and planning the study
-Conducting the study
What is the first step in conceptualizing and planning a qualitative study?
Identifying the research problem:
-Start with broad topic, focusing on an aspect about which little is known
-Down the line the question is sharpened and delineated more clearly
What is the second step in conceptualizing and planning a qualitative study? Explain why this step is controversial.
Doing a literature review:
-In favor: researchers should conduct at least a brief literature review at the outset
-Opposed: prior studies may influence the conceptualization of the phenomenon under study, believe it should be elucidated based on participa
What is the third step in conceptualizing and planning a qualitative study?
Selecting sites and gaining entree into research sites:
-Identify appropriate site
-Gain entree: negotiations with gatekeepers who have the authority to permit entry into their world
What is the fourth step in conceptualizing and planning a qualitative study?
Developing an overall approach:
-Use an emergent design, which develops during the course of data collection
-Use basic traditional guidelines, but vary dramatically
What is the fifth step in conceptualizing and planning a qualitative study?
Addressing ethical issues:
-More intimate nature of qualitative studies
What occurs while conducting a qualitative study? Explain the basic process.
Undertaking iterative (repetitive) activities through emergent design
Explain how sampling decisions are made in a qualitative study.
-Starts with pre determined number of subjects who have first hand experience with the phenomenon under study
-Discussion/observation is loosely structured to allow participants to express a full range of behaviors, beliefs, and feelings
-Analysis and int
What is the principle of saturation?
Themes and categories in the data become repetitive and redundant, and no new information can be gleaned by further data collection
Explain the data analysis process in a qualitative study.
-Clustering together related types of narrative information into a coherent scheme
-Inductive reasoning leads to identifying themes and categories, which are used to build a rich description or theory of the phenomenon
-Researcher must develop trustworthi
How can trustworthiness of data be established in a qualitative study?
Once all possible data is collected, researcher returns to participants and shares preliminary interpretations with them and asks them to evaluate whether the researchers thematic analysis is consistent with their experiences
Once qualitative research is disseminated, what influence do they have on nurses?
Shape nurses perceptions of a problem or situation, their conceptualizations of potential solutions, and their understanding of patients concerns and experiences
List 6 additional questions for a preliminary review of a study.
-What is the study about? What are the main phenomena, concepts, or constructs under investigation?
-If the study is quantitative, what are the IV and DV?
-Did the researchers examine relationships or patterns of association among variables or concepts? D