Post Classical Africa
Africa below the Sahara for long periods had only limited contact with the civilizations of the Mediterranean and Asia. Between 800 and 1500 C.E., the frequency and intensity of contacts increased. Social, religious, and technological changes influenced A
African Societies
Although Africans shared aspects of language and belief, their continent's vast size and number of cultures made diversity inevitable. Political forms varied from hierarchical states to "stateless" societies organized on kinship principles and lacking con
Stateless Societies
Stateless peoples were controlled by lineages or age sets. They lacked concentrated authority structures but at times incorporated more peoples than their more organized neighbors did. In the West African forest, secret societies were important in social
Common Elements
The migration of Bantu speakers provided a common linguistic base for much of Africa. Animistic religion, a belief in natural forces personified as gods, was common, with well-developed concepts of good and evil.Many Africans believed in a creator deity w
The Arrival of Islam
From the mid-seventh century, Muslim armies pushed westward from Egypt across the regions called Ifriqiya by the Romans and the Maghrib (the West) by the Arabs. By 711 they crossed into Spain. Conversion was rapid, but initial unity soon divided North Afr
Christian Kingdoms
Christian states were present in North Africa, Egypt, and Ethiopia before the arrival of Islam.Oppression by Byzantine Christians caused them to welcome Muslim invaders. Coptic influence spread into Nubia (Kush). The Nubians resisted Muslim incursions unt
Kingdoms of the Grasslands
Islam spread peacefully into sub-Saharan Africa. Merchants followed caravan routes across the Sahara to the regions where Sudanic states, such as Ghana, had flourished by the eighth century. By the thirteenth century, new states, Mali, Songhay, and the Ha
Sudanic States
The states often were led by a patriarch or council of elders from a family or lineage. They were based on an ethnic core and conquered neighboring peoples. The rulers were sacred individuals separated from their subjects by rituals. Even though most of t
Empire of Mali "Lion Prince
." Mali, along the Senegal and Niger Rivers, was formed among the Malinke peoples, who broke away from Ghana in the thirteenth century. Ruler authority was strengthened by Islam. Agriculture, combined with the gold trade, was the economic base of the stat
City Folk
Distinctive regional towns, such as Jenne and Timbuktu, whose residents included scholars, craft specialists, and foreign merchants, developed in the western Sudan. Timbuktu was famous for its library and university. The military expansion of Mali and Son
Songhay Kingdom
The Songhay people dominated the middle reaches of the Niger valley. Songhay became an independent state in the seventh century. By 1010, the rulers were Muslims and had a capital at Gao. Songhay won freedom from Mali by the 1370s and prospered as a tradi
Political and Social Life
Larger states were ruled by a dominant group. Islam provided a universal faith and a fixed law that served common interests. Indigenous political and social patterns persisted in the unified states. Rulers reinforced authority through Muslim officials and
Swahili Coast
A series of trading ports, part of the Indian Ocean network, developed along the coast and islands between the Horn of Africa and Mozambique. Town residents were influenced by Islam, but most of the general population remained tied to traditional ways.
Coastal Trading Ports
Bantu-speaking migrants had reached and mixed with indigenous Africans early in the first millennium C.E. Immigrants from Southeast Asia had migrated to Madagascar from the second century B.C.E. With the rise of Islam, individuals from Oman and the Persia
Mix of Cultures
The expansion of Islamic influence in the Indian Ocean facilitated commerce. It built a common bond between rulers and trading families and allowed them to operate under the cover of a common culture. Apart from rulers and merchants, most of the populatio
In Depth
Even though determining the size and structure of historical populations is very difficult, their study has become a valued tool for better understanding the past. Demographic research presents an opportunity for uncovering aspects of the politics and eco
People of Forest and Plains
Apart from the peoples of the savanna and eastern coast, by 1000 C.E. most Africans were following their own lines of development. Agriculture, herding, and the use of iron implements were widespread. Some large and complex states formed; most were prelit
Artists and Kings
In the central Nigerian forests, the Nok culture flourished between 500 B.C.E. and 200 C.E. Its members developed a realistic art style; they practiced agriculture and used iron tools. After Nok disappeared, there is a long hiatus before the reappearance
Central African Kingdoms
By the thirteenth century C.E., Bantu speakers were approaching the southern tip of Africa. By around 1000, they were forming states where kinship patterns were replaced by political authority based on kingship. The Luba peoples, in Katanga, created a for
The Kingdoms of the Kongo and Mwene Mutapa
The kingdom of the Kongo flourished along the lower Congo River by the late fifteenth century. It was an agricultural society whose people were skilled in weaving, pottery making, blacksmithing, and carving. There was a sharp gender division of labor: wom
Global Connections
The spread of Islam had brought large areas of Africa into the global community. The most pronounced contacts south of the Sahara were in the Sudanic states and East Africa where a fusion of Islamic and African cultures created an important synthesis. Mos
Byzantuim and Eastern Europe
In addition to the great civilizations of Asia and North Africa forming during the postclassical period, two related major civilizations formed in Europe. The Byzantine Empire, in western Asia and southeastern Europe, expanded into eastern Europe. The oth
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire, once part of the greater Roman Empire, continued flourishing from an eastern Mediterranean base after Roman decline. Although it inherited and continued some of Rome's patterns, the eastern Mediterranean state developed its own form
Origins
Emperor Constantine in the fourth century C.E. established a capital at Constantinople. Separate emperors ruled from it even before Rome fell. Although Latin served for a time as the court language, Greek became the official tongue after the sixth century
Justinian's Achievements
In the sixth century, Justinian, with a secure base in the east, attempted to reconquer Western territory but without lasting success. The military efforts weakened the empire as Slavs and Persians attacked frontiers, and they also created serious financi
Arab Pressure and the Empire's Defenses
Justinian's successors concentrated on the defense of their Eastern territories. The empire henceforth centered in the Balkans and western and central Turkey, a location blending a rich Hellenistic culture with Christianity. The revived empire withstood t
Byzantine Society and Politics
Byzantine political patterns resembled the earlier Chinese system. An emperor, ordained by god and surrounded by elaborate court ritual, headed both church and state. Women occasionally held the throne. An elaborate bureaucracy supported the imperial auth
The Split between East and West
Byzantine culture, political organization, and economic orientation help to explain the rift between the eastern and western versions of Christianity. Different rituals grew from Greek and Latin versions of the Bible. Emperors resisted papal attempts to i
The Empire's Decline
A long period of decline began in the eleventh century. Muslim Turkish invaders seized almost all of the empire's Asian provinces, removing the most important sources of taxes and food. The empire never recovered from the loss of its army at Manzikert in
The Spread of Civilization in Eastern Europe
The Byzantine Empire's influence spread among the people of the Balkans and southern Russia through conquest, commerce, and Christianity. In the ninth century, missionaries Cyril and Methodius devised a written script, Cyrillic, for the Slavic language, p
The East Central Borderlands
Both eastern and western Christian missionaries competed in eastern Europe. Roman Catholics, and their Latin alphabet, prevailed in Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland. The region became a long-standing site of competition between the two influences. A se
The Emergence of Kievan Rus'
Slavic peoples from Asia migrated into Russia and eastern Europe during the period of the Roman Empire. They mixed with and incorporated earlier populations. They possessed iron and extended agriculture in Ukraine and western Russia. Political organizatio
Institutions and Culture in Kievan Rus'
Kiev borrowed much from Byzantium, but it was unable to duplicate its bureaucracy or education system. Cultural, social, and economic patterns developed differently from the western European experience. Rulers favored Byzantine ceremonials and the concept
Kievan Decline
Kievan decline began in the twelfth century. Rival princes established competing governments while the royal family quarreled over the succession. Asian invaders seized territory as trade diminished because of Byzantine decay. The Mongol invasions of the
In Depth: Eastern and Western Europe: The Problem of Boundaries
Determining where individual civilizations begin and end is a difficult exercise. The presence of many rival units and internal cultural differences complicates the question. If mainstream culture is used for definition, Orthodox and Roman Catholic religi
The End of an Era in Eastern Europe
With the Mongol invasions, the decline of Russia, and the collapse of Byzantium, eastern Europe entered into a difficult period. Border territories, such as Poland, fell under Western influence, while the Balkans fell to the Islamic world of the Turks. We
Global Connections: Eastern Europe and the World
The Byzantine Empire was active in interregional trade; Constantinople was one of the world's great trading cities, and the empire served as a link between northern Europe and the Mediterranean. When Byzantium declined and the Mongols conquered Russia, a
Post-Classical Western Europe
The postclassical period in western Europe, known as the Middle Ages, stretches between the fall of the Roman Empire and the fifteenth century. Typical postclassical themes prevailed. Civilization spread gradually beyond the Mediterranean zone. Christian
Two Images
Although western European society was not as commercially or culturally developed as the great world civilizations, it had its own distinctive characteristics. Western political structures had many similarities with those of the other more recent civiliza
Stages of Postclassical Development
From the middle of the sixth century C.E. until about 900, disorder prevailed in western Europe. Rome's fall left Italy in economic, political, and intellectual decline. The Catholic Church remained strong. Muslim-controlled Spain maintained a vibrant int
The Manorial System: Obligations and Allegiances
Until the tenth century, most political organization was local. Manorialism was a system of reciprocal economic and political obligations between landlords and peasants. Most individuals were serfs living on self-sufficient agricultural estates (manors).
The Church: Political and Spiritual Power
The Catholic Church in the first centuries after 500 was the single example of firm organization. The popes headed a hierarchy based on the Roman imperial model; they appointed some bishops, regulated doctrine, and sponsored missionary activity. The conve
Charlemagne and His Successors
The Carolingian dynasty of the Franks ruling in France, Belgium, and Germany grew stronger during the eighth century. Charles Martel defeated Muslim invaders at Tours in 732. Charlemagne built a substantial empire by 800. He helped to restore church-based
New Economic and Urban Vigor
During the ninth and tenth centuries, new agricultural techniques�the moldboard plow, the three-field system�significantly increased production. Horse collars, also useful for agriculture, and stirrups confirmed lordly dominance. Viking incursions diminis
Feudal Monarchies and Political Advances
From the sixth century, feudalism, a system of political and military relationships, evolved in western Europe. Military elites of the landlord class could afford horses and iron weapons. The greater lords provided protection to lesser lords (vassals) who
Limited Government
Western Europe remained politically divided. The Holy Roman Empire's territories in Germany and Italy were controlled by local lords and city-states. The pope ruled in central Italy. Regional units prevailed in the Low Countries. In strong feudal monarchi
The West's Expansionist Impulse
The ongoing political and economic changes spurred European expansion beyond initial postclassical borders. From the eleventh century, Germanic knights and agricultural settlers changed the population and environmental balance in Eastern Germany and Polan
Religious Reform and Evolution
The Catholic Church went through several periods of decline and renewal. The church's wealth and power often led its officials to become preoccupied with secular matters. Monastic orders and popes from the eleventh century worked to reform the church. Lea
The High Middle Ages
Postclassical Western civilization reached its high point during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Creative tensions among feudal political forms, emerging monarchies, and the authority of the church produced major changes in political, religious, int
In Depth: Western Civilization
Western civilization is hard to define, since the classical Mediterraneans did not directly identify what "Western" was and because of the lack of political unity in western Europe in the postclassical era. However, western Europeans certainly would have
Western Culture in the Postclassical Era
Christianity was the clearest unifying cultural element in western Europe, even though it changed as European society matured.
Theology: Assimilating Faith and Reason
Before 1000 C.E., a few church members had attempted to preserve and interpret the ideas of earlier thinkers, especially Aristotle and Augustine. The efforts gradually produced a fuller understanding of the past, particularly in philosophy, rhetoric, and
Popular Religion
Although we do not know much about popular beliefs, Christian devotion ran deep within individuals. The rise of cities encouraged the formation of lay groups. The cults of the Virgin Mary and sundry saints demonstrated a need for intermediaries between pe
Religious Themes in Art and Literature
Christian art and architecture reflected both popular and formal themes. Religious ideas dominated painting, with the early stiff and stylized figures changing by the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries to more realistic portrayals that included secular sc
Changing Economic and Social Forms in the Postclassical Centuries
Apart from the cultural cement formed by the Catholic Church, Western society had other common features in economic activity and social structure. The postclassical West demonstrated great powers of innovation. When trade revived in the tenth century, the
New Strains in Rural Life
Agricultural improvements after 800 C.E. allowed some peasants to shake off the most severe manorial constraints. Noble landlords continued their military functions but used trade to improve their living styles. The more complex economy increased landlord
Growth of Trade and Banking
Urban growth promoted more specialized manufacturing and commerce. Banking was introduced by Italian businessmen. The use of money spread rapidly. Large trading and banking operations clearly were capitalistic. Europeans traded with other world regions, p
Limited Sphere for Women
As elsewhere, increasing complexity of social and economic life limited women's roles. Women's work remained vital to families. Christian emphasis on spiritual equality remained important, while female monastic groups offered a limited alternative to marr
The Decline of the Medieval Synthesis
After 1300, postclassical Western civilization declined. A major war embroiled France and England during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The sporadic fighting spread economic distress and demonstrated the weaknesses of the feudal order. At the sam
Signs of Strain
There were increasing challenges to medieval institutions. The landowning aristocracy, the ruling class, lost its military role as professional armies and new weapons transformed warfare. Aristocrats retreated into a ceremonial style of life emphasizing c
The Postclassical West and Its Heritage
The Middle Ages has been regarded as a backward period between the era of Greece and Rome and the vigorous new civilization of the fifteenth century. This view neglects the extent of medieval creativity. Much of Europe had not previously been incorporated
Global Connections: Medieval Europe and the World
Western Europe in the Middle Ages had a love-hate relationship with the world around it. Early on, Europe seemed threatened by Vikings, Asian nomads, and Islam. At the same time, Europeans actively copied many features from Islam and traded with Asians. T