Ch 17 - Firefighter Safety and Survival

Introduction

Most firefighters will be injured over the course of their career due to the inherent dangers of the job. Each year more than 100 firefighters are killed in the line of duty, with an additional 81,000 injured. The goal is to operate safely, effectively and efficiently at all times. There is no greater priority on the fire ground than that of firefighter safety and survival. Firefighter safety is the common thread that runs through three general priorities of fire ground operations: life safety, incident stabilization and property conservation. Safety is the overriding concern of all fire ground operations, firefighter training and station activities.
These safety decisions should not be made by probationary firefighters or even 3-year firefighters, but by more seasoned veterans of the fire ground. There's an old adage "if you cannot make things better, at least make them safe". Firefighter safety is rooted in training and awareness, which is the responsibility of all department members and the department as a whole. Safety is an attitude.
Survival is predicated on training, knowledge and experience coupled with safe staffing, situational awareness, and tactics that occur in unison to and with each other. It's important to establish a "foundation of safety" and build upon it for the rest of your career (470-471).

Drifting into failure

Although some failures at fires will be catastrophic, most will happen incrementally until the sum is greater than the parts, resulting in an injury or death (470).

Risk versus gain

If the risk to be taken is not worth the gain to be accomplished, then alternative courses of action may need to be considered. I.e. a fully involved building fire typically doesn't get a primary search because the likelihood of finding live victims is extremely remote, if not impossible (470).
Retired Phoenix Fire Cheif Alan Brunacini said "Risk a lot to save a lot, risk a little to save a little, risk nothing to save nothing" (471).

Firefighter fatality and injury statistics

There are approximately 105 firefighter line-of-duty-deaths (LODD) per year in the U.S, which is two per week (471).

Firefighter fatalities

According to the NFPA's provisional statistics, there were 64 on-duty firefighter fatalities in the U.S. in 2012, which is a 5% increase from the previous year (61). There were four multiple fatality incidents. 24 were career firefighters and 30 were volunteer firefighters, ranging in age from 21-70. Fire ground operations accounted for 21 deaths with 12 occurring at structure fires. The three most prevalent duty death types were: during fire ground operations, while responding to or returning from alarms, and training.
According to the United States Fire Administration (USFA), interior firefighting operations (advancing hoselines) accounted for 13 firefighter fatalities in 2012. The NFPA said that 19 fatalities occurred while responding to or returning from alarms, 8 of which from crashes, 7 attributed to sudden cardiac deaths or stroke, and 2 separate incidents of firefighters struck by falling trees en route to or returning from a response. 16 of these 19 were volunteer firefighters.
Exertion and stress: Sudden cardiac death
: Sudden cardiac death, most often as a result of heart attacks, is a leading cause of death for firefighters, accounting for 1/2 of all LODD per year. Many had a prior condition. Firefighters who follow a proper diet and exercise regimen and are apart of a wellness program are less likely to fall victim to exertion and stress fatalities. Regular fitness checkups, including stress tests, will assist in proactively identifying potential cardiac concerns. No-smoking policies, smoke cessation programs, and regular relief and rotation of fire ground IDLH exposures will put less work-related stress and exertion on its members.
Struck by an object or contact with an object
: motor vehicle-related injuries are the second leading killer of firefighters. Also includes collapsed walls and roofs. Can include contact with live electrical equipment. Not wearing seat belts and excessive speed also played factors.
Caught or trapped
: Usually the result of A) rapid fire development such as a flashover or back draft or B) losing orientation with their surroundings, losing contact with their partner or team, and running out of air. Failure to properly wear the SCBA waist strap can cost your life as it can get caught on something inside the building (471-472).

Firefighter prevention

Driver safety
: Departments should actively engage in driver safety courses and driver evaluations on at least a yearly basis. Training in accordance to NFPA 1002 and 1421. Seat belt regulations should be equally enforced with a zero-tolerance policy with all accidents investigated and documented.
Collapse safety
: A comprehensive training program regarding building construction and collapse, as well as a hazardous building marking system and building familiarization program. Dangerous buildings should be known via department safety bulletins and CAD print-outs. Proactive reconnaissance, ongoing awareness and timely communications should be at the cornerstone of the fire ground safety plan.
Electrical safety
: Departments should conduct joint training with local utility companies. Overhaul operations should not be initiated without power shutdown in affected areas. All equipment should be kept at least 10' away from power lines.
Fire behavior safety
: Training firefighters in fire behavior and further training to recognize and properly react to deteriorating fire conditions cannot be underestimated. Enforcing proper wearing of turnout great may save a firefighter from laziness and apathy. Enforced mandatory mask rules and proper air management and awareness are a must for safe interior firefighting.
Freelancing
causes firefighters to become lost and disoriented because they're operating outside of the established attack plan. Structured command and control along with disciplined officers and firefighters operating under the parameters of effective scene assignment are the best accountability system and the backbone of firefighting freelance prevention (472-473).

What is NFPA 1002?

Fire Apparatus Driver/Operator Professional Qualifications (472).

What is NFPA 1421?

Standard for a Fire Service Vehicle Operations Training Program (472).

Firefighter injury statistics and prevention

Firefighter injuries are contributed to overexertion, lack of awareness (not paying attention), failure to properly wear protective clothing, freelancing, lack of discipline, and lack of common sense. According to the NFPA, there were 83,000 firefighter injuries in 2006, with over half (53%) occurring on the fire ground. The leading type of injuries are strains, sprains, and muscular pain (46.7%), followed by wounds, cuts, bleeding and bruising (17.3%). Burns (5.9%) and smoke or gas inhalation (5.6%). Non-fireground injuries- strains, sprains, and muscular pain- account for more than half (56.7%). Overexertion and strain were the leading causes of injury (25.5%) and falls, slips and jumps (23.9%) were the second highest cause.
There were 12,000 exposures to infectious diseases (HIV, hepatitis, meningitis, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus-MRSA, etc.) and over 23,500 exposures to hazardous materials and conditions such as asbestos, radioactive materials, chemicals, and fumes. Although injuries have been on the rise in the past 5 years, it's still declining steadily over the past 20 years. The Northeast has had the highest fireground injury rate, over twice the rest of the country (473-474).

Types of injuries and exposures

The best way to prevent injuries are proper training and supervision, adopting a proper safety attitude, having a philosophy of continuous vigilance and awareness (paying attention to your surroundings), promoting and enforcing anti-freelance policies, maintaining the proper relief and rotation of companies, and wearing PPE properly. A safety-conscious department will experience fewer injuries than a department that's not safety focused. Safety of personnel begins at the top and must permeate the entire departmental structure. Unsafe actions must be subject to a zero-tolerance policy at all times (474).

Stains, sprains, and muscular pain prevention

A progressive program in muscular and cardiovascular fitness can minimize strains, sprains and muscular pain. Our competition is fire, smoke, buildings, blood and other nonhuman hazards. We can ensure we use common sense in physical endeavors, such as not overextending ourselves or attempting something alone that we should get help with. Proper relief and rotation is the key to injury prevention, especially in extremes of weather (474).

Falls, slips, and jumps

Falls, slips and jumps are also often the result of fatigue. Proper relief is a key to prevention of not only these but all injuries. Proper lighting at night and in reduced visibility conditions will help prevent falls. To prevent ice, all apparatus should carry ice-melting compounds such as rock salt during the winter months - which should be spread around the fireground and on the steps of the fire building, and around the pump panel. There's also traction devices available that fit on firefighting boots to help prevent slips and falls.
The severity of falls from heights are a function of the height of the fall and how properly the firefighter wore the turnouts. Firefighters have fallen from 10' and have been killed when their helmets fell off on the way down (due to not wearing their chinstrap).
Conditions causing firefighters to jump out of a window can come about as a result of a failed size-up, a failure to secure a secondary means of egress, or some type of uncoordinated fire operation. Jumps occur when all other methods of self-preservation have failed. A firefighter jumping out of a building or leaving a building by way of emergency bailout represents a failure at every level of fireground organization, from the firefighter who jumps or bails out to the incident commander and other commanding officers to the department as a whole. Mechanisms such as effective and enforced scene assignment SOPs, a proper accountability system, disciplined communications, and ongoing departmental training in bailout prevention are all remedies to the jump (and fall) dilemma (474).

Responding and returning injuries

Responding to and returning from calls are the second leading cause of firefighter deaths and are also a major cause of injuries, accounting for nearly 5,000 injuries. There were 16,000 fire apparatus accidents in 2006. These do not account for personal vehicle accidents (an additional 1,000 collisions and 200 injuries).
Training, awareness and enforced driver safety will help prevent these occurrences. Firefighters do not have the right of way or ability to ignore speed limits because their in a firetruck (475).

Injuries during non-fire emergency calls

The cause of injury in a non-fire call is directly related to incident awareness (or lack thereof) when conducting operations that personnel are not adequately trained for or equipped to handle. Over half of these types of incidents have had firefighters get too close to the problem before realizing the magnitude of the consequences. Disciplined firefighters are safe firefighters (475).

Weather-related injuries

Frostbite and heat exhaustion occur in extreme weather and are best minimized by proper relief of personnel, medical monitoring, and providing shelter and other comfort measures based on the weather. Getting firefighters out of turnouts, ensure proper hydration (in all seasons), and providing cooling equipment like misters and tents will help reduce the effects of heat and humidity on personnel. Once you feel parched, it's probably too hate to sufficiently re-hydrate quickly enough to avoid the consequences. Stay away from caffeine and heavy foods in hot and humid weather.
With cold weather, providing shelter, carrying additional dry clothing, and providing early and regular rotation and relief all help minimize the effects of cold on firefighters. A one-alarm fire may require a three-alarm response to ensure proper relief and rest for weather-fatigued firefighters. Early recognition by observant colleagues can be a lifesaver because the victim is usually unaware that they're being affected (475-476).

What does RAC stand for?

Rehabilitation and Care unit (a rehab unit) (476).

Exposures to infectious disease

Department must conduct annual training on the dangers and prevention of bloodborne contamination occurrences. Recognition of the potential for exposure and contamination in the first step in safeguarding personnel. Wear proper body substance isolation (BSI) protection. All exposures to bloodborne pathogens must begin with a process that includes a trip to the hospital for medical evaluation as well as documentation (476).

Preventing training injuries

A good majority of injuries occur during training sessions. Training is often the third highest category of fatalities and injuries. There were over 7,600 training injuries in 2006. A safety officer should be assigned for any live burns. Live burning in structures for training is in strict compliance of NFPA 1403 (476-477).

What is NFPA 1403?

Standard on Live Fire Training Evolutions (476).

Preventing non-fireground injuries

These injuries are classified by the NFPA as "other on-duty" activities. These occur at the station, during fire prevention and maintenance duties, while exercising, and during everyday routine activities. All of these injuries are preventable and many times are attributed to lack of communication, not cleaning up after oneself, and basically not doing the right thing. North Hudson, New Jersey Regional Fire and Rescue's Safety Matters bulletin said "There's no fire, but we're still getting injured" (477).

Fireground Lesson Page 477

1) You cannot trip when you are crawling. If you can't see your feet, you need to crawl.
2) Turnout gear is our first line of defense (477).

Don't be a slip and fall guy

Preventive maintenance prevents injuries:
-Report broken steps, cracked sidewalks, leaks, etc.
-If you spill it, clean it.
-If you notice it, address it.
-When you are done with something, put it away (477).

Details should not equal disaster

-Be aware of your surroundings at all times.
-Don't just check out the rig, check out the house.
-Use the same caution, care and common sense in a different firehouse as you would on a fireground.
-House duties, routine maintenance, meal preparation areas, and work-out equipment areas differ from house to house - familiarize yourself.
-House and apparatus familiarization should be ongoing.
-Check with the crew about idiosyncrasies before you discover them by accident (477-478).

Don't be a tool- let your equipment work for you

-Some items may have shifted during travel, so use caution when opening overhead compartments.
-If it falls out once, straighten it out. If it falls out twice, you need straightening out (478).

Respect your back, or you'll wind up on it

-The extent of the injury is often in direct proportion to the haphazardly hasty manner in which it is performed (478).

Summary

-Pass information on- chances are someone knew about an unsafe condition beforehand.
-Set the example, don't be the example.
-Your personal safety is your own responsibility
-Accident prevention is rooted in awareness and begins with you (478).

Injury management and reporting

Injury reporting is a vital part of the injury prevention cycle. It's generally the responsibility of the immediate supervisor to report and document injuries. All injuries must be reported and documented no matter how minor they may seem. Many departments' insurance policies do not recognize any diagnosis other than that of their own doctors for on-duty injuries. The injured member, his supervisor, and any witnesses should submit reports documenting the incident (478-480).

Fire/EMS Safety, Health and Survival week

Formerly called the National Firefighter Safety Stand Down, Fire/EMS Safety, Health, and Survival Week was initiated by the IAFC (International Association of Fire Chiefs) in 2005. Safety, Health and Survival week normally takes place during the third week of June and it raises awareness and calls national attention to the unacceptable number of firefighter LODD. The theme in 2007 was Ready to Respond and focused on proper training, preparation and equipage before a call. The IAFC recognizes that safety initiatives and policies must be instituted at the organizational and administrative levels and filtered down and enforced through the chain of command (480).

The rules of engagement for structural firefighting

The IAFC created and adopted the 10 Rules of Engagement for Structural Firefighting. The rules are split into two categories: the acceptability of risk and risk assessment.
The acceptability of risk
1. No building or property is worth the life of a firefighter.
2. All interior firefighting involves an inherent risk.
3. Some risk is acceptable in a measured and controlled manner.
4. No level of risk is acceptable where there is no potential to save lives or property.
5. Firefighters shall not be committed to interior offensive firefighting operations in abandoned or derelict buildings.
Risk assessment
6. All feasible measures shall be taken to limit or avoid risks through risk assessment by a qualified officer.
7. It is the responsibility of the IC to evaluate the level of risk in every situation.
8. Risk assessment is a continuous process for the entire duration of the incident.
9. If conditions change and risk increases, change strategy and tactics.
10. No building or property is worth the life of a firefighter (480-481).

#5. Firefighters shall not be committed to interior offensive firefighting operations in abandoned or derelict buildings.

Per NFPA, between 1996-2000, 18 firefighters per 100,000 incidents were killed in vacant building fires. That figure dropped to 9 per 100,000 incidents between 2001 and 2005. Safety support systems such as CADS information and hazardous vacant building marking (HVB) systems will assist responding personnel in minimizing the amount of unknown hazards in the building (481).

#7. It is the responsibility of the IC to evaluate the level of risk in every situation.

The IC's decision-making process is only as good as the information being received from operational areas around the fireground by virtue of delegation and decentralization. Informed decisions are safe decisions. The IC must depend on eyes and ears of chief and company officers (481).

Risk Assessment

A risk assessment is a size-up followed by an analysis of the perceived threats to safety, a continuous evaluation of all fireground concerns and activities.
Consider the fireground extremely hazardous from dispatch to return. This is a good philosophy to follow, especially once the fire is under control, which is one of the most injury and freelance-prone times on the fireground (481).

Risk Management

Risk management is dealing with identified hazards by minimizing the chance of injury. Risk management and casualty prevention begins well before and department personnel even sets foot near the incident or on the fireground. Per NFPA 1500, departments must have an official, written risk management plan in place, which includes the following:
-Administration
-Facilities
-Training
-Vehicle Operations
-Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
-Operations at emergency incidents
-Operations at non-emergency incidents
Addressing risk management should be thought of as a cycle that repeats itself over and over as new information is discovered, analyzed and resolved. It follows four basic components of the risk management plan:
1. Risk identification
2. Risk evaluation
3. Risk control techniques
4. Risk management monitoring and follow-up (482).

Department safety committees

A department's members are a valuable tool to reduce injuries and fatalities. A departmental safety committee should be represented by members of all ranks and provide an alternate avenue outside the chain of command to advocate for safety. The committee should be mechanism by which concerns can be addressed and fixed, preventing unsafe actions and unsafe conditions. Areas of concern may be PPE, station concerns such as diesel exhaust and maintenance issues, and apparatus concerns. The committee works to ensure compliance with a myriad of OSHA and safety regulations and fosters a positive relationship between labor and management. We all benefit when labor and management work together to increase safety (482-483).

The fireground scene safety officer

Safety officer (SO) monitors and assesses safety hazards and unsafe situations and develops measures for ensuring personnel safety. They have the emergency authority to alter, suspend or terminate any operation they deem hazardous to the operating personnel. The SO should be someone who's reliable, safety conscious, and rich in fireground knowledge. The IC retains the responsibility for any actions of the SO. The scope of the SO's roles are in NFPA 1521. These are outlined in a course called Incident Safety Officer, which was developed by the National Fire Academy. The SO are the eyes and ears of the IC and should not be confined to the command post. The safety officer should be put in full PPE and operate as an arm of the command.
The SO should conduct a 360 upon arrival. Give a face-to-face or radio report to the IC. SO then moves to the area with the greatest concern to monitor. It's not the SO's job to tell firefighters how to properly put on their PPE. In a technical rescue, the SO should have equal expertise. There would be an assigned Hazardous Materials Safety Officer (HMSO) or a Technical Rescue Safety Officer (TRSO). This specialized SO oversees the hot zone, while the department SO addresses the perimeter and overall scene safety (483-484).

What is NFPA 1521?

Standard for Fire Department Safety Officer (483).

The accountability officer

The accountability officer serves to coordinate the flow of personnel into and out of the fire area with the IC. Use a command board to track the location and assignments of resources. They should also carry a riding list of all personnel on duty. They should be at the command post, as mobile human command boards do not work on the fireground.
Accountability officers should continually monitor the radio and to liaison with command about deployment and tactical reserve. A headset is helpful. They may also be responsible for the PAR report. Operational safety starts with accountability and it's everyone's responsibility (484).

Risk management programs

-Fireground rehabilitation
-On-deck air management
-Fire department wellness programs
-Fire department physicals
-Firefighter fitness
-Injury rehabilitation
-Critical incident stress management (CISM)
-Employee assistance programs (485-489).

Fireground rehabilitation

Rehabilitation is vital to the well-being of personnel as well as the continuity of the operation. Firefighters need to be properly rehydrated and replenish their caloric intake, have their turnout gear removed, have their vital signs monitored, and either be returned to service or removed from service. Improper rehabilitation not only affects air management but also leads to cardiac events.
A rehab division should be at every major fire and all fires with extreme weather. All apparatus should carry water coolers. Carry extra clothes and gloves on all apparatus (485).

On-deck air management

On-deck air management refers to having on hand properly staffed companies ready to relieve crews that are nearing their one-fourth reserve air and meeting them inside the structure to give the exiting crews ample time to remove themselves. This was developed by the Phoenix, AZ Fire department. The crew exits, switches out bottles and is put back on deck. Based on factors, such as available personnel, weather, and fireground operational status, once a crew has used two bottles they are sent to rehab for medical evaluation, hydration, caloric intake, and cooling or heating (486).

Fire department wellness programs

Wellness programs improve the overall health and well-being of firefighters. Wellness programs include annual physicals, fitness programs including dietary, flexibility and exercise programs, rehabilitation of injuries, critical incident stress management (CISM) programs, and employee assistance programs (EAP) (486).

Fire department physicals

A firefighter first entering the service should have a physical as a baseline, then follow annually. Stress tests, blood testing for cholesterol levels and prostate screening, lung capacity testing, calcium screening to determine extent of arterial plaque buildup, and EKGs are all ways that firefighters can determine disease potential in a proactive manner. Firefighters should focus on illness and injury prevention as an alternative to medical intervention (486-487).

Firefighter fitness

The demands of the job require that firefighters be in top physical shape. This includes cardiovascular, strength/endurance conditioning, and flexibility conditioning. Since sprains and strains are the most predominant injury in the fire service, stretching should be part of the pre-and post-exercise routine. A health diet is also important. Never work out alone in a fire station's exercise room. Use a spotter (487).

Injury rehabilitation

The Injury Rehabilitation Initiative of New Haven, CT, focuses on three components:
-Clinical pathway training: Takes doctors and physical therapists through a department's orientation that includes riding in a truck and participating in a full day of hands-on training.
-Physical therapy that is geared to our essential job functions.
-Practical evolutions that allow the firefighter to build strength and confidence.
These programs reduce secondary injury and reduce the number of lost days from work (487-488).

Critical incident stress management (CISM)

Behavioral health is just as important as mental and physical health. When the effects of these reactions begin to affect the individual's life to the point where lifestyle, family and peer relationships, and job performance are affected, intervention in the form of peer-focused counseling and possibly further professional counseling may be necessary. Sometimes incident stress can not surface until weeks or months after the traumatic event occurred. Signs to keep an eye out for include: head and body ache and tremors, difficulty making decisions and concentrating, memory loss (especially of the incident), anxiety, guilt, fear, feelings of abandonment and isolation, emotional outbursts, withdrawal from others, and any significant change in behavior.
Some departments have their own CISM teams and others rely on hospital-sponsored teams. CISM teams consist of health care professionals and fire personnel from different departments. Working with peers who've been through it and can empathize offer great benefits in the way of support and reduction of the effects. The initial stages of CISM includes defusing or debriefing. Debriefings are aimed to get people to talk, although speaking is not mandatory (488-489).

Employee assistance programs

EAPs exist for both the physical and mental welfare of firefighters. They help a department member and/or family to get through troubling times and return to normalcy. There's a variety of help, including: smoking cessation programs, weight control programs, family and marital counseling, substance abuse programs, and stress counseling programs. Also financial and legal counseling (489).

Personal responsbility

The key to a safety mind-set starts with everyday actions and attitude toward work, self, and others. Strive to always do a little more than required. This goes for housework, equipment maintenance, and fireground operations. Laziness and complacency contribute to injuries in the firehouse and on the fireground (489).

Firehouse and personal safety

The remedy for most unsafe conditions is proper and diligent house work. Ensure pathways to apparatus are clear and wet floors are clearly marked. When cooking, ensure the stove is turned off before responding to an alarm. Fire poles should be safeguarded, and sliding a pole when wet is not recommended. Material safety data sheets (MSDS) should be kept in highly visible places and updated whenever a potential hazardous product is brought into the station or taken out.
Horseplay can also lead to injuries. Any practical joke that contains reference to race, sex or religion, or that involves any safety equipment has no place in the fire service (489-490).

Responding and returning safety

Responding to and returning from an alarm is the second leading cause of firefighter LODD in the U.S. It's also the leading cause of injury. The main reason the casualty rate is so high is that the rules are not enforced (490).

Maintenance

Preventive maintenance programs should be incorporated into every firefighter's day, which can be broken down into three sections:
-Apparatus
-Hand tools
-Power tools
The morning apparatus checks include the Department of Motor Vehicles pre-trip, which is a systematical check of the vehicle inside and out (including brakes, fluids, gauges, and tires).
Often, riding assignments will direct what equipment a firefighter is responsible to check. When checking hand tools, make sure they're clear of rust, properly marked, and free of damage. Power tools should be started regularly and run till the motor heats up (3-5 minutes for a saw). Ensure blades, chains and disks are free of damage. If a chain is missing three teeth in a row or five total teeth, notify the officer and take the chain out of service (490-491).

Seat belts

Seat belts must be fastened at all times. It's everyone's responsibility to ensure all personnel are safely on board and belted before moving. Drivers should be permitted to wear PPE that does not restrict their driving. Do not remove seat belt to put on PPE or SCBA. Firefighters not riding in enclosed cabs should wear head, eye and hearing protection. A ManSaver safety bar should be used in conjunction with a seat belt. Tail board riding is prohibited at all times (491).

Mounting and dismounting apparatus

Always use handrails and steps while mounting and dismounting the apparatus. Always maintain three points of contact with the apparatus. Face apparatus when mounting or dismounting. If you have to exit the apparatus that's in contact with live electrical lines, jump clear so you aren't touching the apparatus and ground at the same time. Do not stand or dismount when apparatus is moving (491-492).

Traffic and scene control

Hit and run accidents, civilian vehicles crashing into stopped fire apparatus, and near-misses all take a toll on firefighter well-being, the ability of apparatus to respond, and the general feeling of security when operating. Firefighters must be vigilant at all times. Traffic control can be utilized by all of the following:
-
Local or state police:
block roads and secure perimeter.
-
Volunteer fire department fire police
: older members who direct traffic at fire scene.
-
Fire department personnel
: perform traffic control duties if no police or fire police are on the scene until police agencies arrive.
-
Traffic cones
: carried by all apparatus to identify perimeter.
-
Road flares
: used at night to alert motorists but should be used judiciously.
-
Fire apparatus
: positioned to block traffic, especially for highway incidents.
-
Traffic-diverting warning lights
: on apparatus should be turned on at all times when companies are operating where traffic is still moving past.
-
Reflective trim on apparatus
: assists in making apparatus more visible at night or in visibility-obscured areas.
-
Reflective trim on turnout gear
: helps denote presence of emergency responders but will only work if clean and serviceable, not worn out.
-
Reflective Department of Transportation Class II vests
: can be worn in addition to or in lieu of turnout gear.
Safety vests offer optimal visibility for oncoming traffic when working on the road (492).

Roadway emergencies and traffic hazards

Backed up traffic can cause delays getting to the scene. Access problems and long distances between exits and turnarounds or jug-handles are also issues. Dispatch can alert other units to take alternative routes. There may be times where companies have to drive against normal traffic, even on highways. It's not recommended but can be done if necessary. Use backer when backing. On a car wreck on the highway, at least one lane needs to be closed in addition to the lane the accident is in. This will provide a buffer for personnel operating. Use apparatus to shield oncoming traffic. Place the apparatus between the scene and the normal flow of traffic. Do not get between the apparatus and traffic, as turnout gear can get snagged by cars driving by. Place apparatus at a 45� angle with the hose bed in the area furthest from the traffic (492-493).

Traffic control devices

Section 61 of the 2003 edition of the Federal Highway Administration's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) addresses the control of traffic through incident management areas. The guidelines within MUTCD are federal laws, not guidelines, thus must be followed. These laws were established to improve responder safety at incident scenes, keep traffic moving as smoothly as possible, and prevent the occurrence of secondary crashes. There's five main points of section 61 in MUTCD:
Section 1: general clauses outlining requirements for interagency coordination, training, visibility, estimating incident scope and length, ETC sign colors, and use of initial devices such as road flares and cones.
Section 2: addresses major traffic incidents, in which its duration lasts more than 2 hours. If it exceeds 24 hrs, full MUTCD work zone requirements need to be implemented.
Section 3: covers intermediate traffic incidents, ranging from 30 minutes to 2 hours in duration. These typically require lane closures and typical vehicle collisions with injuries fall into this category.
Section 4: minor traffic incidents. Duration less than 30 minutes. Simple actions such as the use of initial control devices will be sufficient to handle the incident. Minor non-injury collisions and stalled vehicles are examples.
Section 5: use of emergency vehicle lighting and provides direction on appropriate types of lighting for use at nighttime roadway incidents (493).

Size-up at a roadway incident scene

Fire responders must size up the scope and severity of the incident within 15 minutes of scene arrival. Determine:
-Magnitude of the incident (number of vehicles, injuries, etc.)
-Proper apparatus placement.
-Estimated duration that roadway will be blocked or affected.
-Expected length of the vehicle queue (backup of vehicles) that will occur as a result of the incident.
For every 1 minute a lane of traffic is blocked, 4 minutes of backup can occur. For the fire department, overriding issue is safety, not congestion (493-494).

Traffic incident management area (TIMA)

According to MUTCD, traffic incident management area (TIMA) includes four major points:
1. The advance warning area that tells motorists of the situation ahead.
2. The transition area where lane changes or closures are made.
3. The activity area where responders are operating.
4. The incident termination area where normal flow of traffic resumes.
Distances for advance warning and transition areas differ based on speed limit in the area of the incident. Higher speed limit areas require longer advance warning and transition areas (494).

Emergency vehicle lighting at roadway incident scenes

Emergency lighting provides warning but not traffic control, and it may be confusing or blinding to motorists, especially at night. Per MUTCD, emergency lighting can be reduced if proper emergency traffic control procedures are being used. It's safer to divert traffic with signs and cones rather than relying on warning lights and vehicles alone. Reduce lighting as much as possible without compromising the safety of responders. Turn off all forward lighting, such as headlights, so you don't blind on-coming drivers. May keep selected amber lights on (494).

Protective clothing for roadway incidents

Turnout reflective trim is insufficient for providing adequate safety on the roadway. Be sure to wear reflective vests. It will increase worker visibility. Vests must have retroreflective and florescent properties.
Retroreflective
material returns most of the light from the light source back to the observer. Florescent material absorbs ultraviolet light of a certain wavelength and regenerates it into visual energy. ANSI/ISEA Standard 107-19999, American National Standard for High Visibility Safety Apparel, specifies the minimum amount of fabric and reflective materials to be placed onto safety garments (494).

Lighting the incident scene

The key to lighting is to make sure all areas are covered, including lighting specific hazards both inside and outside the building (495).

Power plants, Inverters, Generators

Inverters
: An inverter is a device that converts the vehicle's 12 or 24 volt DC (VDC) current into 110 or 220 volt AC (VAC) current. Used when small amounts of power are needed. Advantageous for fuel consumption and initial cost, but the amount of power they can produce is limited.
Generators
: The most common type of power source used to provide emergency power. Can be either vehicle mounted or portable equipment.
Portable generators
: usually powered by gasoline or diesel fuel. Have a power output of 110 or 220 V. Smaller systems can be carried whereas larger systems require wheels and handles to transport. Used in areas where a vehicle cannot access that area. Disadvantage of a portable system is the limited power that can be produced by the unit.
Vehicle-mounted generators
: usually provide greater power capacity than the portable units. Vehicle-mounted units can be used to power vehicle-mounted lighting equipment and outlets for portable lighting, power cords, or electrical powered equipment. Can be powered by: gasoline, diesel fuel, propane, hydraulic oil, power takeoff (PTO) systems. Have power outlets of 100 or 220 V with capabilities up to 60 kilowatts (kW). Some are very noisy and require the vehicle's motor to be running to power them (495).

Lighting equipment

Two categories: portable and fixed.
Portable lights
: Used for investigation, salvage and overhaul, and the incident itself. Apparatus floodlights and light towers provide exterior visibility. Portable lights allow interior visibility. Range from 500-1,500 W. Attached to a power cord and supplied by either a fixed-vehicle or portable power plant. Generators create carbon monoxide and should only be used in well-ventilated areas.
Fixed lights
: Mounted permanently on apparatus. Provide immediate lighting around and under the vehicle. Can be turned on by a breaker panel or switches in the cab. The fold-up or telescoping light mast is also popular. Can be rotated and tilted up and down for desired effect. Typical bank ranges from 500-3,000 watts per light (495-496).

True or False:

Overhead lighting works well for major incidents. Light mast and tower ladders will make it look like daytime. True. (496).

Auxiliary electrical equipment

Equipment should meet NFPA 70E (496).

What is NFPA 70E?

Standard for Electrical Safety Requirements for Employee Work Places (496).

Electrical cords

Can be rated at 15, 20, or 25 amps and they come in different lengths. Many will have twist lock and conventional plugs (496-497).

Twist locks and regular adaptors

Most have either twist-lock connectors or standard two- prong and ground plug male and female connections. Twist-lock connections require the same amperage rating for the male and female connections. You can't mate a 15-amp connector with a 20-amp connector (497).

Electrical cord reels

Electrical cord reels can be vehicle-mounted or portable units. Fixed units hold more cord (497).

Junction or gang boxes

Junction or gang boxes are used when multiple outlets are needed. Can provide multiple connections for twist-lock or conventional plugs, or a combination of both. Should be equipped with
ground fault interruption (GFI)
capabilities to eliminate the possibility of electrical shock for the user (497).

Controlling utilities

Electricity
: If the incident warrants electrical power to be shut off, local utility should be immediately requested by IC. Firefighter can locate electrical panel or fuse box and disconnect the main switch. Many times it's in the basement on the wall directly below where the electrical service enters the building. Make a mental note if the breaker was tripped. Pulling the electrical meter from the socket on the structure is not an acceptable method and should only be done by qualified electrical personnel. For commercial, check with plant personnel before randomly cutting power. Buildings may also have auxiliary power supplies or be fed with two sources.
Gas
: If gas needs shut off, IC should immediately notify local gas utility. Can usually be turned off on the street side of the gas meter. Can be accomplished by turning the gas cock one-quarter turn to the off position. If gas cannot be shut off, a defensive position should be met until utility crews arrive. PPE should always be worn when working with live utility systems. Propane systems have a shutoff valves on the top of the tank and also inline shutoff valves at the appliances. Wear PPE.
Water
: Most water utilities can be controlled by closing the valve where the water enters the structure. Most water utility companies recommend shutting the valves on the building side of the meter, not the street side (477-499).

Personal protective equipment

NFPA 1500, requirement 7.1.3. says "Structural fire fighting clothing shall be cleaned at least every six months as specified in NFPA 1851". NFPA 1951 addresses the cleaning and drying of turnout gear ensembles. Wet turnout gear is thermally unstable. Also the storage of wet or moist turnout ensembles can affect the strength of some materials and promotes the growth of mildew and bacteria. Gear should be dried in a non-tumble-style dryer with a forced-air dryer around 100�F. Gear that's not cleaned contains toxic products of combustion that can result in an exposure. Do not keep gear in passenger compartment of your personal vehicle. It's recommended that firefighters are issued two sets of turnout gear (499-500).

What is NFPA 1851?

Standard on Selection, Care, and Maintenance of Protective Ensembles for Structural Firefighting and Proximity Fire Fighting (499).

True or False:

If your gear gets saturated during training, it will not provide the same protection as dry gear, and live fire evolutions should stop. True. (499).

Hearing protection

Firefighters can be exposed to noise levels above 115 decibels on the fireground. NFPA 1500 and OSHA Standard on Occupational Noise Exposure 1910.95 both require hearing protection when levels exceed 90 decibels. It's well established that when responding to alarms you'll be exposed to over 90 decibels. OSHA recognizes it's impractical to use hearing protection once on scene because it can interfere with other life-saving equipment (500).

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

OSHA standards are federal regulations that mandate minimum training standards, equipment performance, administration, and operations. The fire service has no fall protection standard for the fireground (500).

Staffing and safety

Lack of proper staffing is a leading contributor to firefighter injuries and death. Per NFPA 1710, the first-arriving company shall be staffed with four personnel and arrive in less than 4 minutes. The entire first-alarm assignments of 15-17 should arrive in 8 minutes. These requirements are based on a 2,000 sq-ft house with no exposures. Studies have found a definitive link between injuries and crew size. Inadequate staffing contributes to companies having to play catch-up. This increases risk to firefighters and contributes to firefighters taking shortcuts that lead to injuries (501).

What is NFPA 1710?

Standard for the Organization and Deployment of Fire Suppression, Operations, Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Career Fire Departments (500).

Reports

Analysis of Fire Fighter Injuries and Minimum Staffing per Piece of Apparatus in Cities with Populations of 150,000 or More
: A report from the IAFF that found that crews smaller than four almost doubled their percentage rate for injuries when compared with crews of four or more firefighters (501).
A study by the Providence (RI) Department analyzed in an applied research project submitted to the National Fire Academy as part of the Executive Fire Officer Program by Curtis Varone, found that "Four-person staffing led to a 23.8% reduction in injuries, a 25% reduction in time lost injuries and a 71% decrease in time lost due to injury when compared to three-person staffing." (501).

Safe staffing requires ESP

Education and Emotion
: Take classes, read trade magazines, and continue your education.
Standards and Statistics
: Continually read reports and standards to stay informed.
Politeness and Political Action
: Get involved with your department and community (501).

Volunteers and staffing

The majority of departments are made up of volunteers. Commitments to work and family and many members working out of town have placed a strain on many volunteer departments to respond during daytime hours. NFPA 1720 applies to volunteer fire departments. Examples are college live-in programs, duty nights, Fire Explorer programs, Junior Firefighter programs, etc (501).

What is NFPA 1720?

Standard for the Organization and Deployment of Fire Suppression Operations, Emergency Medical Operations and Special Operations to the Public by Volunteer Fire Departments (501).

The Washington Post Theory

Conduct yourself so that if your actions were to be published on the front page of the Washington Post, you would be proud - Captain Michael Abrashoff, U.S. Navy (502).

Staffing, you and the budget

Your department's reputation will play a direct role in the budget process (502).

Personnel accountability system

Accountability is everyone's responsiblity. Accountability systems establish who is on scene and what companies those personnel are assigned to. These systems must address the following:
-Who is on scene
-What company they are assigned to
-Where they are operating
PAR reports can be conducted whenever the IC wants. Should be requested once the fire is declared under control.
Diagramming the fire.
DIMWIT
: Does It Matter What I'm Transmitting? Officers and firefighters should give their location with every radio transmission when inside a hazard area.
An evacuation order should never be questioned (502-503).