Strategy and coordination of resources
Depending on the conditions at the fire scene, the incident commander IC determines the strategy and tactics for controlling the fire.
Strategy is determined based on importance of priorities.
Three priorities-
Life safety, incident stabilization, and property conservation.
The incident commander must decide if risking the lives of firefighters will have a positive outcome such as saving lives of victims inside the building structure
This decision locked and dictate whether the fires attacked offensively or defensively.
Offensive
The offensive strategy used at a structure fire usually means deploying resources for interior tactical operations to accomplish incident priorities.
An offensive strategy may include advancing an attack hoseline into a structure to extinguish the fire, rescuing patients or both.
Specific categories will help determine the tactics used during an offensive strategy: value, time, and size.
Value
Life and safety hazards at the scene, savable lives, and or salvageable property
Time
Time to accomplish selected tactics, potential for collapse and deterioration of structural stability, and potential changes in fire conditions
Size
Tactical flowrates needed to control the fire, available resources, and fire conditions
Rescue and or fire extinguishment May be the objective for an offensive strategy
in some fire incidents, rescue and extinguishment will occur simultaneously.
Defensive
This strategy is intended to isolate or stabilize an incident and keep it from expanding
A defensive strategy is generally an exterior operation that is chosen because an interior attack is unsafe or resources are insufficient
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Defensive strategic operations are employed when the following conditions are present at a structure fire
Excessive volume of fire. Lack of resources including lack of personnel.
Structural deterioration. Risk outweighs benefit. Unfavorable wind conditions.
Strategic transitions
A transition from offensive to defensive occurs when conditions in the structure deteriorate rapidly and unexpectedly
Defensive to offensive
This strategy may be necessary especially when there are not enough firefighters to meet the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, two in and two out regulation.
Offensive to defensive
When a situation rapidly changes, the incident commander must make the decision to transition from an offensive to a defensive strategy.
During an orderly withdrawal, hose lines should not be abandoned unless absolutely necessary
In an emergency evacuation, all personnel evacuate as quickly as possible. Abandoned hose lines cannot provide any protection during evacuation.
When a transition from offensive to defensive strategy occurs, you must
Use or maintain situational awareness to recognize changes and fire behavior and structural stability.
Resource coordination
Fire attack during interior operations must be coordinated with forcible entry, search and rescue operations, ventilation in control of utilities.
When fighting any fire, large or small, exterior or interior, firefighters should always work as a team under the direction of a supervisor.
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The opposite of situational awareness is tunnel vision.
To maintain situational awareness look up, look down, look all around.
Listen for new or unusual sounds and feel vibrations or other movements. Communicate any changes you become aware of.
Factors and considerations when selecting hose lines.
Flow rate needed for extinguishment. Potential fire spread. Size of building. Number of fire fighters available to advance hose lines.
Big fire equals big water.
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For interior firefighting, the area involved in the fire load should dictate the size of the hose lines that should be used.
For an interior fire, a hose line no smaller than a 1 and a half should be used to provide a sufficent volume of water to cool the fire and protect the fire fighters.
Small diameter hose is 3/4 inch to 2 inches in diameter.
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Attack hose line and a back up hose line must be placed in service at the same time.
Back up hose line performs 3 critical functions.
Protecting the attack hose line team from extreme fire behavior. Protecting the means of egress for the attack hose line team. Providing additional fire suppression if the fire increases in volume.
The back up hose line should be at least the same size and provide the same fire flow as the attack hose line.
A fog nozzle is also preferred because it will provide the greatest protection for both teams.
Factors will dictate the nozzle and stream selection
Fire conditions. Available water supply. Number of firefighters available to safely operate the hose line. Capabilities of the nozzle being used.
For an interior fire attack, a fog nozzle is generally the most useful
A wide fog pattern can be used to protect firefighters from radiant heat as well as cool the hot fire gases
This allows you to switch to a straight stream when it becomes necessary to penetrate the hot gas layer and cool the compartment linings or reach the burning fuel
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It's an attack is going to be made from the structures exterior, a solid stream nozzle may be the best choice. The solid stream will deliver the greatest amount of water over the farthest distance.
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If the number of personnel is limited, it may be necessary to reduce the size of the nozzle or use a master stream device from the exterior
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Making entry - the incident commander or supervisor will decide where and from what direction to make entry for an interior attack
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pre-entry considerations are critical for firefighter safety and effectiveness, these include the following
Reading fire behavior indicators. Understanding the crews tactical assignment. Identifying potential emergency escape routes. Ensuring that SCBA is on, cylinders are full and operating properly.
Pre entry considerations continued.
Verifying that radios are receiving and transmitting on the correct channel. Evaluating forcible entry requirements. Ensuring other team members are prepared to enter the structure by doing a buddy check.
The firefighter assigned to the nozzle should open the nozzle fully to ensure adequate flow, check the pattern setting, and bleed the air from the hose line.
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Caution
Do not open the door until you have a charged hose line and are ready to control conditions encountered.
Check the door for heat by using the back of a gloved hand, a thermal imager, or applying a small amount of water to the door. If the door is very hot, the water will evaporate and convert to steam.
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You must observe the smoke movement and air flow when the door is opened:
Fast air movement in at the bottom and smoke moving at the top indicates an active fire in the structure. With the attack hose line in place apply water to the gas layers, and wait 10 seconds to observe any reactions before entering the structure.
Once the door is open and entry is made, chock the door to prevent it from closing on the hose line.
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Wind creates air flow patterns within the structure that directly increase fire expansion and cause FF casualties.
You should attack with the wind to your back.
FIRE ATTACK
depending on the nature and size of the fire, FF may use direct, indirect or combination method of attacking the fire.
Direct attack
A direct attack on the fire using a solid or straight stream uses water most efficiently on free burning fires.
Indirect attack
This attack is made through a window or other opening, directing the stream forward the ceiling to cool the room. This attack produces a lot of steam and must be coordinated with ventilation.
To make an indirect attack on a fire, a fog stream is introduced through an opening and directed at the ceiling where the temperature is highest.
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Combination attack
A combination attack combines cooling the hot gas layer at the ceiling level using an indirect attack with a direct attack on the fuels burning near the floor level. To combine both attacks, move the nozzle from floor to ceiling into a Z or T or rotationa
Gas cooling
Gas cooling is not a fire extinguishment method but is a way of reducing heat release from the hot gas layer.
Gas cooling technique is effective when faced with a shielded fire; that is, a fire you cannot see from the doorway because it is located in a remote part of the structure or objects a shielding the fire.
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Remember that smoke is fuel, and it may transition to rollover, flashover, or a smoke explosion at anytime
In addition, hot smoke radiates heat to furniture and other combustibles in the compartment.
Cooling the hot gas layer slows the transfer of heat to other combustibles and reduces the chances of the over head gases igniting.
To cool the hot gas layer, direct short bursts or pulses of water fog into it. With the nozzle set on a fog pattern.
If water droplets fall out of the overhead smoke layer, it means that the gases have been cooled and you can stop spraying water into the smoke
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Fires in upper levels of structures
In structures equipped with standpipe systems, the location of the standpipe connection will determine the method of fire attack.
If the standpipe is located in a protected stairway, hose lines may be connected on the fire floor.
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Some departments allow elevators to be used to transport personnel, fire fighting tools, and equipment to a staging area normally located two floors below the fire floor.
Always follow your department SOP's when using elevators in fire buildings.!
Below ground structure fires
Fires originating in basements or subfloors are some of the most difficult and dangerous structure fires that you may encounter.
Residential basements
In an unfinished basement, the first floor joists are exposed to the fire and will fail sooner than a ceiling protected with drywall.
Factors that contribute to basement fires.
Fuel loading, especially the fuel load on the floor above the basement. Use of lightweight construction materials that are susceptible to rapid collapse.
Basements that have been converted to living spaces, including sleeping areas, create life safety hazards for occupants as well as FF.
Initial size up of any basement fire is especially important because basement fires are extremely dangerous, especially with regard to structural collapse.
During initial fire fighting operations, sounding the floor and using a thermal imager have been used to determine if the floor is safe to walk on.
When the fire is extinguished, a visual inspection of the floor joists should be made before personnel are permitted to work on the first floor.
Thermal imagers will not always provide an accurate assessment of the structural integrity of the floor system.
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Basements may be
Assessed through
Interior enclosed stairwells. Exterior enclosed stairwells. Window wells.
The interior and exterior enclosed stairwells act as a flow path for smoke, flames, and heated gases, much like a fireplace chimneys
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A penetrating or cellar nozzle can also be used if it can be installed without placing personnel on the weakened floor.
Reduce the amount of fire and then make another assessment of the basement conditions.
If the fire is ventilation limited, the added ventilation may result in a flashover of the basement and be fatal to any firefighters on the stairs or in the basement
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During initial fire fighting operations, sounding the floor and using a thermal imager have been used to determine if the floor is safe to walk on.
When the fire is extinguished, a visual inspection of the floor joists should be made before personnel are permitted to work on the first floor.
Thermal imagers will not always provide an accurate assessment of the structural integrity of the floor system.
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Basements may be
Assessed through
Interior enclosed stairwells. Exterior enclosed stairwells. Window wells.
The interior and exterior enclosed stairwells act as a flow path for smoke, flames, and heated gases, much like a fireplace chimneys
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A penetrating or cellar nozzle can also be used if it can be installed without placing personnel on the weakened floor.
Reduce the amount of fire and then make another assessment of the basement conditions.
If the fire is ventilation limited, the added ventilation may result in a flashover of the basement and be fatal to any firefighters on the stairs or in the basement
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Basement fires are hot and opening a vent point to allow oxygen to enter is going to create more problems.
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commercial basements and subfloors
basements and subfloors in commercial structures may have similar construction as those in residential structures, though they may be more robust if the fuel load on the main floor is significant.
basements and subfloors in commercial structures can have many uses, including parking, electrical/mechanical, and storage.
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Exposure to fire may weaken metal floor supports. Heavy objects on the floor above the fire can increase the chances of floor collapse because the added weight accelerates the failure of supporting members.
The longer steel supports are subjected to fire, the more likely they are to fail, regardless of their configuration.
in commercial basements and subfloors pre incident surveys and inspections will help to determine the type of basement ceiling construction and the amount of fire it can withstand before it collapses.
The location of standpipe connections, potential ventilation air flow paths, and the amount of breathing air needed to access basement fire will influence the tactics used.
EXPOSURE PROTECTION
Covering any object in the immediate vicinity of the fire with water or foam.
preventing a fire from spreading to unaffected areas is an important tactic. Unaffected areas are referred to as exposures and may exist inside or outside of a structure.
Interior exposure protection generally involves closing doors or other openings between the fire area and the unaffected area and the proper use of tactical ventilation to ensure the smoke movement is limited.
Exposure protection can involve the application of water spray on the surfaces of structures adjacent to the fire building.
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CONTROLLING BUILDING UTILITIES
Electric, gas, and water supplies, helps to control the fire and limits damage. The incident commander or your supervisor will determine which utilities must be controlled and assign the task to you!
Fire department personnel are not responsible for turning utilities back on and should not attempt to do so.
Turning the electricity or gas back on could cause a reignition of the fire due to damaged wiring, pipes, or appliances.
High-voltage is any voltage in excess of 600 volts.
Low voltage- any voltage that is less than 600 volts and safe enough for domestic use, typically 120 volts or less.
If power is shut off to the entire building or any device in it, the main power switch should be locked out and tagged out to prevent it from being turned back on before it is safe to do so.
If lockout/ tag out devices are not available, assign a fire fighter equipped with a portable radio to stand by at the switch until power can be safely restored.
In many structure fires it is advantageous for eletrical power to remain on to provide power for lighting, ventilation equipment, fire pumps, and other essential systems.
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Solar panels generate current whenever there is a light source, sunlight, moonlight, artificial lighting, and are always energized.
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Gas utilities
natural gas and liquifired petroleum gas LPG.
Many houses, manufactured homes, businesses, and industrial properties use natural gas or LPG for cooking, heating, or industrial processes.
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Natural gas in its pure form is methane, which has a flammability range of 5 to 15 percent but is nontoxic.
Although natural gas has no odor of its own, mercaptan is added by utility companies, which causes very distinctive sulphur-like odor, much like rotten eggs.
To shut off natural gas, turn the tang 90 degrees to the pipe.
When the valve is open, the tang/ a rectangular bar is in line with the pipe.
Liquefied petroleum gas LPG. also known as bottled gas, LPG refers to fuel gases stored in a liquid state under pressure.
Butane and propane - propane is the most widely used. propane is primarily used as a fuel for gas in campers, manufactured homes, agricultural applications, rural homes, and businesses.
Liquified petroleum gas LPG
Any of several petroleum products such as propane or butane, stored under pressure as a liquid.
An LPG leak will produce a visible cloud of vapor that hugs the ground.
A fog stream of at least 100 GPM can be used to dissipate this cloud of unburned gas.
WATER - It will be necessary to shut off the water supply to prevent water damage from broken pipes.
water valve shut offs are located underground with the water meter.
SUPPORTING FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS AT PROTECTED STRUCTURES.
protected structures feature some sort of fire protection system such as an automatic sprinkler system and or standpipe system.
Automatic sprinkler systems are designed to increase survivability of occupants and firefighters in a structure.
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CONNECTING TO A FIRE DEPARTMENT CONNECTION
one of the first priorities at a fire in a protected structure is to connect to the fire department pumper to the fire department connection FDC.
fire department connections have labels indicating the type of system or zone of the building that they serve.
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Shutting the sprinkler systems control valve should only be done once the fire has been brought under control and the Incident Commander has given the order to do so.
Some departments prefer to plug active sprinklers individually rather than close the fire suppression systems control valve
Control valves used in sprinkler systems are typically of the indicating type because they indicate at a glance whether they are open or closed.
Types of indicating valves include:
- Outside stem and yoke OS AND Y VALVE.
- POST INDICATOR VALVE PIV.
-WALL POST INDICATOR VALVE WPIV.
-POST INDICATOR VALVE ASSEMBLY PIVA.
Outside stem and yoke valve
The threaded portion of the stem is visible beyond the yoke when the valve is open and not visible when the valve is closed.
Post indicator valve PIV.
Attached to the valve stem is a movable plate with the words OPEN or SHUT.
Post indicator valve assembly PIVA
uses a circular disk inside a flat plate on top of the valve housing. is operated with a built-in crank.
Deploying master stream devices
Master streams are usually deployed in situations where the fire is beyond the effetiveness of hand lines or there is a need for fire streams in areas that are unsafe for firefighters
The four main uses for a master stream
Direct fire attack, indirect fire attack, supplement hand lines that are already attacking the fire from the exterior, provide exposure protection.
Firefighters should aim the stream so that it enters the structure at an upward angle causing it to deflect off the ceiling or other overhead objects.
This angle makes the stream diffuse into smaller droplets that rain down on the fire, providing maximum extinguishing effectiveness.
Master streams can be very effective for providing exposure protection on other structures.
Most effective approach is to face the stream at the surface of the structure that faces the fire. Another approach is to create a water curtain between the fire and the exposure.
Supplying master streams
Master stream devices flow a minimum of 350 gallons per minute, which can mean high friction loss in supply hose. It is not practical to supply master stream appliances with anything less than two, 2 1/2 inch hose lines.
Caution
Added water weight from master stream operations increases the potential for structural collapse.
Deploying a master stream device and the necessary water supply hose lines will usually require a minimum of two firefighters, although more firefighters can accomplish it faster
Once the master stream is in place, one firefighter can operate it.
Elevated master stream devices are used to apply large quantities of water during defensive operations.
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SUPPRESSING CLASS C FIRES.
Class C fires involve energized electrical equipment.
Class C fires may occur in the following locations
Vehicle incident that involve hybrid or electric vehicles. Computer server rooms or data centers. Photovoltaic arrays.
Electrical stations and substations are subject to class C fires
Before initiating fire suppression activities, stop the flow of electricity to the device involved
Multipurpose dry chemical agents are very effective at extinguishing class C fires, but some are chemically reactive with electrical components.
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Using water on energized equipment is inappropriate because of the inherent shock hazard and resulting damage to the electrical equipment.
Any voltage greater than 40 Volts is potentially dangerous. If water must be used, apply it from a distance in the form of a fog or spray stream
Class C fire suppression techniques are also needed for fires involving transmission lines and equipment, underground lines, and alternative energy sources such as solar panels, and Wind - or engine powered generators.
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Use a dry chemical or carbon dioxide extinguisher to extinguish fires and transformers at ground level.
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Underground transmission lines. Consist of conduits and bold below ground.
Explosions caused when a fuse opens or a short circuit ignites accumulated gases are the most serious hazards underground transmission system's present.
Firefighters should remain at least 300 feet away from underground vaults until the power to the vault has been shut off by a qualified person
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Commercial high-voltage installations
Many commercial and industrial complexes have electrical equipment that requires current in excess of 600 volts. Water even in the form of fog should not be used in these situations
Firefighters properly trained and can find it - space rescues that should enter these installations only when rescue operations require it and rescue is possible without jeopardizing the life of the firefighter.
A rapid intervention crew or team is also required in these situations.
Electrical hazards- electrical shock can include the following
Cardiac arrest, respiratory arrest, surface or internal burns.
The following effects the seriousness of the electrical shock.
Path of electricity through the body, length of exposure.
Guidelines for electrical emergencies
The first rule and dealing with electrical hazards is to assume that all electrical wires, equipment, and devices are energize until proven otherwise
Provide an exclusion zone equal to the distance between power poles, this should be established around down powerlines
Electrical current from a down powerline radiate in ripples.
Do not use solid and straight streams on fires in energized electrical equipment.
Remain inside a vehicle or apparatus that is in contact with powerlines. If you must leave the vehicle or apparatus jump clear of the apparatus, landing with both feet together
Ground gradient is an electrical behavior that produces electrical pulses in the ground starting at the point where the powerline contacts the earth and expanding out in concentric circles.
If you find yourself in a gradient field or feel tingling in your legs, put or place your feet close together and hop or shuffle until you were out of the danger area.
NFPA 1971 requires footwear to provide a certain level of protection from electrical shock.
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Suppressing CLASS D fires.
Class D combustible metal present the duel problem of burning at extremely high temperatures and being reactive to water.
In some situations, if a class D extinguishing agent is not available, firefighters can simply protect the exposures and allow the metal to burn itself out.
Class D fires react violently when they come in contact with water
Combustible metal fires emit a characteristic brilliant white light that only diminishes when an ash layer covers the burning metal
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Full PPE must be worn when extinguishing vehicle fires to protect against toxic and nontoxic smoke and vapors
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Modern vehicles use a number of different fuel sources
Gasoline. Diesel. Electricity. Hybrids. Compressed or liquefied natural gas. Hydrogen. Biofuels.
The first action upon arrival at a vehicle accident is to size up the incident
Once scene safety has been established, you can focus on saving the vehicles occupants and extinguishing the fire.
Determine if there are victims in the vehicle and if they will require extrication. At the same time, determine if the vehicle is on fire or leaking fuel.
Confirm the type of fuel and select the appropriate extinguishing agent.
Vehicle fire attack - the basic procedures for attacking a fire in a vehicle are-
Attack the fire from a 45� angle. Extinguish any fire near the vehicle occupants first.
Deploy an attack hose line that will provide a minimum 95 gallons per minute flow rate, such as a one and a half or one and three-quarter attack hose.
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Once the fire has been controlled consider disconnecting the battery ,securing airbags, and cooling fuel tanks.
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Alternative fuel vehicles - create different risks to emergency responders.
Alternative fuels - natural gas. Liquefied petroleum gas. Electric or hybrid electric. Ethanol - methanol. Biodiesel. And hydrogen.
Look for visual indicators that the vehicle is an alternative fuel source
Vehicle logos, fuel specific logos, special fuel ports, distinctive vehicle profiles.
Tactics that should be considered when dealing with an alternative fuel vehicle include
Park apparatus a minimum of 100 feet away from the incident. Approach from uphill and upwind, if possible. Use nonsparking extrication tools.
Natural gas - compressed natural gas CNG AND liquified natural gas LNG.
Both CNG AND LNG tanks can rupture of exposed to fire. If fire is visible allow it to burn itself out. Use water or foam it extinguish if necessary.
Liquified natural gas
If there is no fire or leak, stabilize the vehicle, set the emergency break or chalk the tires, turn off the ignition, and shut off the gas cylinder valve handle
Tactics and guidelines for fires or leaks involving liquefied natural gas include the following
Shut off the ignition. Use purple K - dry chemical agent or high - expansion foam on the surface of liquefied natural gas fire. Use sand or dirt to prevent liquefied natural gas from entering storm drains.
Liquefied petroleum gas LPG.
Liquefied petroleum gas, also known as propane, is the third most common vehicle fuel type after gasoline and diesel.
Characteristics of LPG
Colorless and odorless in its natural state. Safer than gasoline. Stored under pressure
The following tactics should be used at incidents involving LPG vehicles
Approach only from the sides at a 45� angle never from the ends. Use gas detectors to determine weeks and isolate weeks from ignition sources. Allow the fire if present to self extinguished. Use foam or water when necessary for extinguishment.
Electric or hybrid electric vehicles should have certain visible indicators such as the vehicle name, logo, charging port on a side or the front of the vehicle, and a distinctive profile.
If no fire is visible, secure the vehicle, chalk the wheels, turn off the ignition, and remove the key. Do not approach if the vehicle is on fire or there is arcing under the hood. Instead, establish seen security and protect exposures.
During fire extinguish man of electric or hybrid electric vehicles, where full PPE, insulated tools, water or foam to extinguish, and specific recommended extinguishing agent for a battery pack fires.
Water is the recommended extinguishing agent although specific agents or tactics may be required for specific fuel or battery types
Do not cut or contact any orange, blue, or yellow color - coated electrical cables or components and electric or hybrid electric vehicles.
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Ethanol - methanol
Are gasoline blends.
Ethanol - methanol fires burn bright blue and maybe hard to see during the day.
As a result, you will need to use a thermal imaging camera to see the flames and locate the fire. Currently, over 50% of the gasoline sold in the U.S. Is an ethanol blend
If the vehicle is on fire, establish a control zone and use only alcohol resistant class B foam such as AR - AFFF, to extinguish the fire.
In both fire and weak situations, request a hazardous materials team response.
Biodiesel is a blend of liquids made from natural plants and diesel
Bio diesel is used in any vehicle design for diesel fuel and no logo is required. If there is a fuel leak, control the leak per local SOP's and request a hazardous materials team.
If the bio diesel vehicle is on fire, use dry chemical, CO2, water fog spray, or foam to extinguish.
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Hydrogen is another alternative fuel source.
Because the flame is invisible during the day, you should use a thermal imaging camera to see the flame.
Tactics for hydrogen fuel vehicles
For both a leak and a fire include shutting off the ignition, isolating the fuel from ignition sources, and talking the wheels. Do you not extinguish the fire. Instead, protect the exposures and allow the fuel to burn off.
Suppressing fire in other class A materials
Exterior fires may occur and stacked and piled materials, small unattached structures, and trash containers. How to extinguish these buyers will depend on the type of material involved, the weather, and the type and quantity of extinguishing agent you use
Stacked ans piled materials
The greatest dangerous to the exposures, primarily nearby structures and groundcover. Therefore, the goal is to can find the fire to the pile or building of origin.
Depending on the material and how involve the fire is, fire streams should be directed at the extreme edge of the fire, controlling the spread
Use a straight stream from a distance and then shifted to a fog pattern
As a quantity of fire is reduced, move the novel closer to the stock material using the fog pattern to protect yourself
Class A foam, Applied with an eductor or through A compressed - air foam system, is very effective for these types of fire. The foam will soak into the materials and also coat the ground under the exposure is preventing fire spread.
Small unattached structures
The primary mission is to prevent fire spread to exposures and then extinguish the fire.
Class A foam and fog streams can be very effective for exposure protection and advancing close to the fire, and extinguishment
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Trash container fires maybe a small as a garbage can or a large - capacity dumpster.
Can contain-
Hazardous materials or plastics that emit highly toxic smoke and gases. Aerosol cans and batteries that may explode when exposed to heat. Biological waste in marked or unmarked containers
It may be advantageous to attack the fire using class A phone.
In some departments, it is standard procedure to use a master stream to flood the container with water to drown any fire that might be hidden in the contents
COMBATING GROUND COVER FIRES.
Ground cover fires include those in weeds, grass, field crops, brush, forests and similar vegetation.
Ground Cover fires have natural and human causes
Discarded smoking materials. Campfires. Sparks from rock slides. Arson.
The three main influences on ground cover fire behavior
FUEL, WEATHER, and TOPOGRAPHY. Of these weather is the most significant.
There are three basic types of groundcover fires based on the type and location of the fuel
Ground fires, surface fires, and crown fires
Ground fire
Burn in the layer of dead organic matter that generally covers the soil in forested areas. These are slow moving, smoldering fires can go undetected for months before they enter a flaming stage. These are very difficult to extinguish
Surface fire
The surface or crawling fire is the most common type of ground cover fire, burning on the soil surface consuming low - lying grass, shrubs and other vegetation
Crown fire
Crown or canopy fires are wind - driven, high intensity fires that move through the treetops of heavily forested areas. The typical causes of crown fires are lightning strikes.
Ground cover fire behavior
Typically, two of the elements of the fire triangle - oxygen and fuel - are always present were ground cover is found. In addition to fuel, oxygen, and heat, weather and topography also contribute to the intensity and spread of the fire.
Groundcover fuels are typically categorized based upon the location of the fuels as follows
Subsurface fuels, surface fuels, aerial fuels.
Fuel size
Small or light fuels burn faster than heavier ones.
Compactness
Tightly compacted fuels burn slower than those that are loosely piled.
Continuity
When fuels are close together, the fire spreads faster because of heat transfer.
Fuel moisture content
Fuels I contain less moisture ignite more Easley and burn with greater intensity than those with a higher moisture content.
WEATHER : whether factors that influence ground cover fire behavior
Wind: fans the flames into greater intensity and supplies fresh air that speeds combustion; very large - sized fires create their own winds.
Temperature
Effects on wind and is closely related to relative humidity. Primarily affects the fuels as a result of long-term drying
Relative humidity
Significantly affects dead feels that only gain moisture from surrounding air rather than the root system
Precipitation
Largely determines the moisture content of live fuels. Dead fuels those Easley ignited may dry quickly; large, dead fuels retain this moisture longer and burn slower
Topography
Physical configuration of the land or terrain
Topography
Refers to the features of the earths surface, and it has a decided effect upon fire behavior
The steepness of a slope affects both the rate and direction of a groundcover fires spread.
Fires will usually spread faster uphill and downhill, and the steeper the slope, the faster the fire spreads
Other topographical factors influencing ground cover fire behavior include the following
Aspect: the compass direction a slope faces determines the effects of solar heating.
Local terrain features
Features such as canyons, ridges, ravines, and even large rock outcroppings may alter air flow and cause turbulence or eddies, resulting in erratic fire behavior.
Drainages - or other areas with wind-flow restrictions.
These steep ravine's are terrain features that create turbulent updrafts causing a chimney effect. Fires in these areas can spread at an extremely fast rate, even in the absence of winds, and are potentially very dangerous.
PARTS OF A GROUND COVER FIRE- every ground cover fire contains at least two or more of the following parts:
Origin- AREA WHERE THE FIRE FIRST STARTED AND THE POINT AT WHICH IT SPREADS.
Head- is part of the ground cover fire that spreads most rapidly. the head is found on the opposite side of the fire from the area of origin and in the direction toward which the wind is blowing.
the head burns intensely and usually does the most damage. usually, the key to controlling the fire is to control the head and prevent the formation of a new head.
FINGER- fingers are long and narrow strips of fire extending from the main fire.
light fuel burns faster than heavy fuel, which gives the finger effect. when not controlled, these fingers can form new heads.
PERIMETER
The perimeter is the outer boundary, or the distance around the outer side edge, of the boring or burned area. commonly called the fire edge.
HEEL- the heel, or rear, of a ground cover fire is the side opposite the head.
Because the heel usually burns downhill against the wind, it burns slowly and quietly and is easier to control than the head.
FLANKS- the flanks are the sides of a ground cover fire.
the right and left flanks separate the head from the heel. It is from these flanks that fingers can form. A shift in wind direction can change a flank into a head.
Spot Fire- spot fire are caused by flying sparks or embers landing outside the main fire
present a hazard to personnel. may form a new head if not extinguished
Islands- patches of unburned fuel inside the fire perimeter.
because they are unburned potential fuels fore more fire, they must be patrolled frequently and checked for spot fires.
Green-
green at ground cover fires is simply the opposite of the burned area and does not indicate that the area is safe.
Black- the opposite of green, the black is the area in which the fire has consumed or blackened the fuels.
The black can sometimes be a relatively safe area during a fire but can be a very hot and smoky environment.
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT
when fighting a ground cover fire wear PPE that meets the requirements of NFPA 1977, standard on protective clothing and equipment for wild land fire fighting.
NFPA 1500, standard on fire department occupational safety and health program, specifies the minimum PPE, for FF to participate in ground cover fire fighting.
Helmet with eye protection and neck shroud. Flame retardant shirt and pants. protective footwear. gloves. fire shelter.
ATTACKING THE FIRE.
The methods used for ground cover fires revolve around perimeter control. The objective is to establish a control line that completely encircles the fire with all the fuel inside rendered harmless.
A direct attack is action taken directly against the flames at its edge or closely parallel to it.
the indirect attack is used at caring distances from the advancing fire. this method is used when fire is too hot, too fast, or too big for a direct attack.
because a ground cover fire is constantly changing, it is quite possible to begin with one attack method and switch to another.
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SAFETY PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES!!!
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fire fighter safety begins with an accurate size-up of the incident. size-up information includes
Fire location. Fire type. incident access. exposures. weather conditions. wind direction. wind velocity. topography. visibility. resources equalling water supply-personnel-apparatus and equipment.
Lookouts, communications, escape routes, and safety zones. LCES
Applying situational awareness can be more effective if the concept of LCES is applied:
Lookouts
Know where the fire is and where it is going.
Communications
Know who is operating above, below, and adjacent to you.
Escape routes
Know more than one way out of the area you are working in.
Safe zones
Know how to quickly get to an area of refuge.
The 10 standard firefighting orders
1. Keep informed on fire weather conditions and forecasts.
2. Know what the fires doing at all times.
3. Bass all actions on current and expected behavior of the fire
The 10 standard firefighting orders continued
4. Identify escape routes and safety zones, and make them known.
5. Post lookouts when there is possible danger.
6. Be alert, keep calm, think clearly, and act decisively.
The 10 standard firefighting orders
7. Maintain prompt communications with your forces, your supervisor, and Adjoining forces.
8. Give clear instructions and ensure that they are understood.
The 10 standard fire fighting orders.
9. Maintain control of your forces at all times.
10. Fight fire aggressively, providing for safety first.
The majority of line - of - duty death's at groundcover fires result from heart failure.
At ground cover fires, monitor your own stress level, check heart and lung rates, stay hydrated, and use the rehabilitation facilities that are provided