claim of fact
A claim of fact asserts that something is true or not true.
claim of policy
A claim of policy proposes a change.
claim of value
A claim of value argues that something is good or bad, right or wrong.
classical oration
five-part argument structure used by classical rhetoricians (introduction, narration, confirmation, refutation, conclusion)
Introduction
introduces the reader to the subject under discussion
Narration
Provides factual information and background material on the subject at hand or establishes why the subject is a problem that needs addressing.
Confirmation
usually the major part of the text, includes the proof needed to make the writer's case
Refutation
Addresses the counterargument. It is a bridge between the writer's proof and conclusion.
Conclusion
brings the essay to a satisfying close
closed thesis
A closed thesis is a statement of the main idea of the argument that also previews the major points the writer intends to make.
deduction
Deduction is a logical process whereby one reaches a conclusion by starting with a general principle or universal truth (a major premise( and applying it to a specific case (a minor premise).
either or
A fallacy in which the speaker presents two extreme options as the only possible choices.
fallacy
a false or mistaken idea
faulty analogy
a fallacy that occurs when an analogy compares two things that are not comparable
first-hand evidence
Evidence based on something the writer knows, whether it's from personal experience, observations, or general knowledge of events.
Hasty Generalization
A fallacy in which a faulty conclusion is reached because of inadequate evidence.
Induction
a logical process whereby the writer reasons from particulars to universals, using specific cases in order to draw a conclusion, which is also called a generalization
logical fallacy
Logical fallacies are potential vulnerabilities or weaknesses in an argument. They often arise from a failure to make a logical connection between the claim and the evidence used to support it.
open thesis
An open thesis is one that does not list all the points the writer intends to cover in an essay.
post hoc ergo propter hoc
This fallacy is Latin for "after which therefore because of which," meaning that it is incorrect to always claim that something is a cause just because it happened earlier. One may loosely summarize this fallacy by saying that correlation does not imply c
qualifier
In the Toulmin model, the qualifier uses words like usually, probably, maybe, in most cases, and most likely to temper the claim, making it less absolute.
quantitative evidence
Quantitative evidence includes things that can be measured, cited, counted, or otherwise represented in numbers-for instance, statistics, surveys, polls, census information.
Rebuttal
gives voice to possible objections
reservation
explains the terms and conditions necessitated by the qualifier
Rogerian Argument
based on the assumption that having a full understanding of an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating
second-hand evidence
Evidence that is accessed through research, reading, and investigation. It includes factual and historical information, expert opinion, and quantitative data.
Straw Man
A fallacy that occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an idea.
Syllogism
a logical structure that uses the major premise and minor premise to reach a necessary conclusion
Toulmin Model
An approach to analyzing and constructing arguments created by British philosopher Stephen Toulmin.
warrant
expresses the assumption necessarily shared by the speaker and the audience