concession
An acknowledgment that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable.
counterargument
An opposing argument to the one a writer is putting forward. A strong writer will usually address it by acknowledging the other side and explaining why the opposing argument is invalid.
refutation
A denial of the validity of an opposing argument. In order to sound reasonable, often following an acknowledgement that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable.
rhetoric
As Aristotle defined the term, "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion." In other words, it is the art of finding ways to persuade an audience.
rhetorical appeals
Used to persuade an audience, these rhetorical techniques are used to convince the audience by emphasizing the speaker's character/reliability, the argument's ethical merit, statements/evidence that affects the audience emotionally, or or logic.
claim
an assertion which requires support.
induction
reasoning from particular experiences to general truths
deduction
reasoning from general statements to particular cases
evidence
data or grounds supporting an argument; may include facts, statistics, expert opinions, examples, and reported experience
assumption or warrant
connect evidence and claims (like glue) and explain why the evidence leads to and justifies the claim; usually a belief, a principle, or an inference whose truth the writer takes for granted
Backing
consists of further assurances or data without which the assumption or warrant lacks authority
Qualifier
uses words "like usually, probably, maybe, in most cases, and most likely" to temper the claim, making it less absolute.
Reservation
restriction placed on warrant or assumption, so that without certain conditions being met there may not always be a connection between data and claim; it explains the terms and conditions necessitated by the qualifier
syllogism
a type of deductive reasoning that has a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. Example:: All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
fallacy
errors in reasoning that lead to the wrong
conclusions.
non sequitur
a fallacy that states a conclusion which does not follow from one or both premises.
oversimplification
a fallacy that supplies "neat and easy explanations for large and complicated phenomena.
hasty generalization
This is a fallacy in which a faulty conclusion is reached because of inadequate evidence. it can be based upon a stereotype.
Either/or reasoning
This assumes that a reality may be divided into only two parts or extremes. Assuming that a given problem has only one of two possible solutions.
appeal to false authority (argument from doubtful authority)
This fallacy occurs when someone who has no expertise to speak on an issue is cited as an authority.
argument ad hominem
This argument attacks a person's views by attacking his or her character.
circular reasoning
a fallacy in which the writer repeats the claim as a way to provide evidence.
post hoc ergo propter hoc
It assumes that because B follows A coincidentally or in time, B was caused by A.
false analogy
asserts that because two things are comparable in some respects, they are comparable in other respects as well.
straw man fallacy
an argument that misrepresents a position in order to make it appear weaker than it actually is
slippery slope
The arguer claims that a sort of chain reaction, usually ending in some dire consequence, will take place. However, there is typically not enough evidence for that assumption.
ad populum or bandwagon
fallacy which occurs when evidence boils down to "everybody's doing it, so it must be a good thing to do.