Induction
Definition: A process in logic that involves moving from a number of particular cases to a general conclusion that all instances of the type investigated will conform to that.
Student Friendly Definition: "bottoms-up reasoning;" gather all specific eviden
Deduction
Definition: A process in logic that involves reasoning from stated premises to the formally valid conclusion; reasoning from general to the particular.
Student Friendly Definition: 'Tops-down reasoning;" deriving general conclusion to specific details.
Ex
Analogy
Definition: Inductive reasoning in which we assume that if two instances are alike in a number of important points, they will be alike to the point in question.
Student Friendly Definition: Similarities of two topics are used as the basis of further simil
Syllogism
Definition: The formula of deductive reasoning.
Major Premise: statement universally accepted as true.
Minor Premise: major premise applied to a particular object or situation.
Conclusion: establishes the relationship of the object to the major propositio
Ad Hominem
Latin Translation: "to the person"
Definition: The fallacy of responding to an opponent's argument by changing the subject to the person who gave the subject, introducing the false assumption that a person of this sort cannot offer an argument worth consi
Bandwagon
Appeal to Common Practice or Belief
Definition: Any argument that defends or recommends a behavior by pointing out how many other people have the same behavior
Student Friendly Definition: A threat of rejection from peer pressure is substituted for eviden
Ad Baculum
Latin Translation: Appeal to Fear, Appeal to Force
Definition: An argument in which a strong emotion, in this case, fear of what will happen if we disagree, is offered by the arguer as a reason to agree.
Student Friendly Definition:Using force or threats
Guilt by Association
Definition: Use of irrelevant connections to accuse or vindicate.
Student Friendly Definition: Associating your claim to something irrelevantly negative to make you feel guilty.
Example: Hitler was a vegetarian therefore vegetarianism is wrong.
*Look at R
Ad Misericordium
Latin Translation: Appeal to Pity
Definition: An argument in which a strong emotion (pity) is offered by the arguer as a reason to agree
Student Friendly Definition: Emotions (usually pity, sympathy, compassion) are appealed to for the sake of getting a c
Begging the Question
Definition: The arguer uses premises that are no more plausible than the conclusion. Conclusions must be supported and support should be secure with more support. If premises are just as questionable as the conclusion, the argument is unsound.
Student Fri
Equivocation
Translation: To call by the same name
Definition: Only a fallacy if we first establish that it takes place within a context of reasoning. It requires the following:
(1) the used word/phrase has two distinct meanings
(2) can paraphrase how the two uses dif
False or Faulty Analogy
Definition: When an argument by analogy overlooks significant differences, it is subject to this fallacy and is unsound. To accuse it of false or faulty analogy, one must note at least one significant difference between the things being compared and must
Faulty Dilemma or Limited Options Fallacy
Definition: Offering someone a false or implausible set of choices
Student Friendly Definition: When two choices are presented when others exist.
Example:
(1) You are either with God or against him.
(2) People either love or hate life.
Either or Fallacy
*Same as Fault Dilemma, but more extreme
Definition: Requires absolutes which do not allow for intermediate cases.
Student Friendly Definition: Offering extreme options which require you to agree with the arguer
Example: You can go to college or end up ho
Hasty Generalization
Definition: Generalizing from a small sample and failing to take this into account in the conclusion of the argument.
Student Friendly Definition: Making a generalization about something without enough evidence to support it.
Example: I drink a bottle of
Hypothesis Contrary to Fact
Definition: Beginning with a premise that is not necessarily true and drawing conclusions from it.
Student Friendly Definition:
(1) A claim about what would have been true if the stated fact were untrue.
(2) Offering a poorly supported claim about what mi
Loaded Question
Definition: Biasing an exchange by asking a question that has an unjustified assumption built right into the question, thus influencing the answer given to it.
Student Friendly Definition: A biased question that contains a controversial or unjustified ass
Self Evident Truth
Definition: Proceeding from an unwarranted assumption to a foregone conclusion.
Student Friendly Definition: Person bases argument with any statement that claims that no evidence is needed, is obvious, and goes without saying - so doesn't prove them
Examp
Ad Vericundium
Latin Translation: Misuse of Authority / False Authority / Appeal to Authority
Definition: Citing someone who is not really an authority on the subject at issue.
Student Friendly Definition: infers something is true because someone who is not necessarily
Non-Sequitur
Latin Translation: "It does not follow"
Definition: The conclusion does not follow from the preceding arguments.
Example:
She ate a salad, therefore she must be trying to lose weight.
No True Scotsman
Definition: Treated as a type of ambiguity or begging the question. Involves making a claim, then in the face of counterexamples, protecting the claim by adding the qualifying term "true" or "real."
Student Friendly Definition: Asserted that no true/real
Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc
Latin Translation: After it, therefore because of it.
Definition: Thinking that if one thing happens and the another thing happens the first thing was the cause of the second.
Student Friendly Definition: mistaking correlation with causation
Example: In t
Red Herring
Definition: Introducing, as reasons for one's position, a topic that is not of genuine relevance to the issue originally being debated.
Student Friendly Definition: Changing the subject by introducing an irrelevant topic
Example: I know I didn't clean my
Slippery Slope
Definition: The assumption in question is that choosing one thing leads to, or is equivalent to, choosing the second thing. But the move from the first to the second is not immediate, instead in a series of small, plausible steps. Results are then noted t
Straw Man
Definition: Consists of misrepresenting an opponent's position in order to make your own position look more reasonable.
Student Friendly Definition: When something that is said is blown out of proportion to make it seem incorrect by being absurd.
Example:
Wishful Thinking
Definition: A strong emotional investment persuades the arguer to advance a completely implausible reason, where it's clear that the arguer merely advances that reason to feel better about them.
Student Friendly Definition: Formation of beliefs and making