rhetoric
the art of persuading an audience
audience
readers/listeners/viewers of a text or performance
texts
cultural products that can be "read" and investigated; essays, photos, political cartoons
occasion
the time and place a text was written or spoken
context
the circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and events surrounding the text
purpose
goal the speaker wants to achieve
speaker
person or group who creates the text
rhetorical triangle
relationship between speaker subject and audience
persona
role the speaker plays when delivering the speech, different from the speaker in real life
subject
topic of the text, not goal
SOAPS
subject, occasion, audience, purpose, speaker
ethos
character", to demonstrate a speaker is credible and trustworthy, can be established by reputation, gives audience a reason to listen
logos
embodied thought", thinking logically and having a clear main idea while using specifics to back it up, reason
pathos
appeal to emotions, values, desires, and hopes on the one hand, or fears and prejudices on the other
counterargument
to anticipate objections or opposing views
concession
when you acknowledge an opposing argument may be true or reasonable
refutation
you deny the validity of all or part of the argument
propaganda
the spread of ideas and information to further a cause; in negative sense, its the use of rumors, lies, and scare tactics to damage or promote a cause
polemic
hostile", aggressive argument that tries to establish superiority of 1 opinion over all others
connotation
statement associated with a word, negative/positive beyond its dictionary definition
close reading
developing an understanding of a text that is based first on the words themselves and then on the larger ideas those words suggest
diction
speaker's choice of words
syntax
how the words are arranged
tone
speaker's attitude toward the subject as revealed by his/her diction
mood
feeling created by the work
metaphor
figure of speech that compares 2 things without using like or as
simile
figure of speech used to explain or clarify and idea by comparing it explicitly to something else, using like, as, or as though
personification
attribution of a lifelike quality to an inanimate object or idea
hyperbole
deliberate exaggeration used for emphasis or to produce a comic or iconic effect; overstatement to make a point
parallelism
similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses
juxtaposition
placement of 2 things closely together to emphasize similarities or differences
antithesis
opposition, or contrast, of ideas or words in a parallel construction
compound sentence
sentence that includes at least 2 independent clauses
complex sentence
sentence that includes 1 independent clause and at least 1 dependent clause
periodic sentence
sentence whose main clause is withheld until the end
cumulative sentence
sentence that compares the main idea at the beginning of the sentence and then builds and adds on
imperative sentence
sentence used to command
hortative sentence
sentence that exhorts, urges, entreats, implores, or calls to action
imagery
description of how something looks, feels, tastes, smells, or sounds; may use literal or figurative language to appeal to senses
oxymoron
paradoxical juxtaposition of an adjective and a noun that seem to contradict one another
alliteration
repetition of the same sound beginning several words or syllables in sequence
allusion
brief reference to a person, place, event, or work of art
anaphora
repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, or lines
antimetabole
repetition of words in reverse order
archaic diction
old-fashioned or outdated choice of words
asyndeton
omission of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words
inversion sentence
inverted order of words in a sentence (variation of subject-verb-object order)
rhetorical question
figure of speech in the form of a question posed for rhetorical effect rather than for the purpose of getting an answer
synecdoche
figure of speech that uses a part to represent the whole
zeugma
use of 2 different words in a grammatically similar way that produces different, often incongruous, meanings
logical fallacies
potential vulnerabilities or weaknesses in an argument/ a failure to make a logical connection between the claim and the evidence used to support the claim
red herring
(fallacy of relevance) occurs when a speaker skips to a new and irrelevant topic in order to avoid the topic of discussion
bandwagon appeal/ ad populum fallacy
occurs when evidence boils down to "everybody's doing it, so it must be a good thing to do." Sometimes, statistics can be used to prove that "everybody's doing it" and thus give a bandwagon appeal the appearance of a cold hard fact.
straw man fallacy
occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an opponents viewpoint
either/or fallacy aka false dilemma
either/or fallacy aka false dilemma
the speaker presents two extreme options as the only possible choices
appeal to false authority
a fallacy that occurs when someone who has no expertise to speak on an issue is cited as an authority
Post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy
Latin for "after which therefor because of which." Means that it is incorrect to always claim that something is a cause just because it happened earlier.
anecdotes
stories about other people that you've either observed or been told about-- can be useful in appealing to pathos
second hand evidence
evidence that is accessed through research, reading, and investigation
first hand evidence
evidence through your own experience
classical oration
1. Introduction 2. Narration 3. Confirmation 4. Refutation 5. Conclusion
narration naratio
provides factual information and background material on the subject at hand, beginning the development paragraphs, or establishes why the subject is a problem that needs addressing. Classically identified as appealing to logos, though often appeals to pat
Confirmation (confirmatio)
usually the major part of the text, includes the development or the proof needed to make the writer's case. Generally the strongest appeal to logos.
toulmin model
An approach to analyzing and constructing arguments. Can be stated as a template:
Because (evidence as support), therefore (claim), since (warrant or assumption), on account of (backing), unless (reservation).
Ex// Because it is raining, therefore I shoul
claim
main idea or position, differs from a topic or subject in that a claim has to be arguable (thesis)
closed thesis
statement of the main idea of the argument that also previews the major points the writer intends to make
refutation refutation
addresses the counterargument. In many ways a bridge between the writer's proof and conclusion. Largely an appeal to logos
argument
a process of reasoned inquiry; a persuasive discourse resulting in a coherent and considered movement from a claim to a conclusion
rogerian argument
based on assumption that having a full understanding of an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating
open thesis
does NOT list all of the points the writer intends to cover in an essay
counterargument thesis
a thesis in which a a summary of a counterargument , usually qualified by although or but precedes the writer's opinion. Has the advantage of immediately addressing the counterargument
ad hominem fallacy
refers to the diversionary tactic of switching the argument fromt he issue at hand to the character of the other speaker (ad hominem means "to the man")
faulty analogy
the attempted comparison of two things that are not comparable
hasty generalizations
occurs when there is not sufficient evidence to support a particular conclusion (induction on the case of one)
circular reasoning
involves repeating a claim as a way to provide evidence resulting in no evidence at all
quantitative evidence
includes things that can be represented in numbers: stats, surveys, polls, census information. Can be persuasive in appeal to logos.
Introduction (exordium)
introduces the reader to the subject under discussion. Latin phrase meaning "beginning a web." Draws the reader in by piquing interest, challenging, or getting attention. Often where the writer establishes ethos.
Conclusion (peroratio)
brings the essay to a satisfying close. The writer usally appeals to pathos and reminds the reader of the ethos est. before. Brings together all the ideas and answers the question "so what?
induction
from the latin inducere, "to lead into"; a logical process whereby the writer reasons from particulars to universals, using specific cases in order to draw a conclusion, which is also called a generalization.
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deduction
a logical process whereby one reaches a conclusion by starting with a general principle or universal truth (a major premise) and applying it to a specific case (a minor premise). The process of deduction is usually demonstrated inn the form of a syllogism
warrant
expresses the Assumption necessarily shared by the speaker and the audience. Links the claim to the evidence.
visual texts questions
does the text tell or suggest a narrative or story?
what emotions does the visual text provoke?
are the figures, realistic, caricatures, or distorted?
are any of the images visual allusions that would evoke emotions or memories in viewers?
what cultural v