Equivocation
The intentional or unintentional use of different meanings of words or phrases in an inference. The term _________ comes from the Latin terms equi (equal) and vox (voice) - and means "with equal voice". When a term is used univocally in an argument, it al
Amphiboly
An ambiguous statement that stems from a grammatical error. Instead of using the same word with multiple meanings, as with the Fallacy of Equivocation, the Fallacy of _________ involves the use of sentences which can be interpreted in multiple ways with e
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Emphasis
When attention is diverted away from the original issue at hand, allowing a change in the intent of a statement or inference. Can be called Accent. The accent (or emphasis) used within the statement in question gives a different meaning from that of the w
Straw man
When someone's words are taken out of context, thus distorting the original inference and creating a new, weak inference that can be easily knocked down. You have a several arguments for your case. I disprove one of those arguments, therefore the whole ca
Red Herring
An inference that ignores opponent's position and changes the subject. Distracting through irrelevancy.
Begging the Question
To assume as evidence the thing one is attempting to prove. Also known as circular logic. The truth of A is assumed within the original premise about A. Hence A is not really proven by the argument. This may occur through a simple statement or via a more
Complex Question
A single question that actually contains multiple, hidden parts. X and Y are unrelated questions. They are combined into question Z, which requires a single answer.
Example: Will you help me and carry this?
Fake Precision
A claim that appears to be statistically significant, but upon analysis is found not to be.
Coincidence
The accidental or chance connection between two events.
Mom: This is the eighth time you have been sent to the principal's office this year. The principal tells me she has seen you more times in her office than any other student. Why is this?
Dwight: A te
Post hoc ergo propter hoc
A short-term pattern that is noticed after the fact. The sequence of things proves cause. (assumptive, causal)
Example: The man pulled out a gun. A shot was fired. Therefore the man fired the shot.
Common Cause
When someone thinks that one event causes another when in fact, both events are the result of a _______________
"It seems that every time empty beer cans are piled up in a car, an accident occurs. It seems that the excess weight and shape of the cans must
Slippery Slope
An inference that attempts to make a final event the inevitable outcome of an initial act. The _______ is a series of statements that have a superficial connection with one another, and which lead into what is often a rather far-fetched conclusion. (assum
Ad hominem
Use of purported character flaws or circumstances of people's lives to reject their claims. (distraction, relevance)
Example: You are not qualified to make such a statement.
Tu quoque
The attempt of one person to avoid the issue at hand by claiming another person is a hypocrite. (consistency)
Example: You cannot take up my cell phone because you did not take up Mia's phone yesterday.
Appeal to emotion
An inference that relies solely on the arousal of a strong emotional state or psychological reaction.
Appeal to pity
An emotional plea that relies solely on a sense of pity for support.
Appeal to force
A threat of harmful consequences used to force acceptance of a course of action that would otherwise be unacceptable.
Inference from ignorance
A claim that a statement must be true because it has not been proven false, or that as statement must be false because it has not been proven true.
Irrelevant conclusion
Where premises that appear to lead logically to a particular conclusion are used instead to support an unexpected conclusion.
Appeal to inappropriate authority
To rely on the opinions of people who have no expertise, training, or knowledge relevant to the issue at hand.
False dilemma
Also known as bifurcation; to assume that only two possibilities exist, both of which would lead to unwanted results, when in fact more than two exist. The other person is offered a choice where rejecting one item acts as a selection of the other. (assump
Accident
X is explained by rule Y. But X does not fall under Y. A general rule is used to explain a specific case that does not fall under its rule. (ambiguity, assumptive)
Example: It is wrong to hurt people. You should not have hit that person who was attacking
Appeal to ridicule
X is amusing, absurd. Therefore it is false.
Mock the other person's claim and argument. Make fun of it. Get people to laugh at it.
Alternatively, mock the alternatives that they might choose, giving them only one option that you have not mocked. (distrac
Appeal to tradition
X has always been done. Therefore X is right.
Claim something to be well-established and proven. Say that it is traditional, and that to change it would be sacrilegious or very wrong in some way.
Example: We've been doing this for thirty years, and we've
Ad baculum
Appeal to fear. X is presented. It causes fear. Therefore Y (which has some relationship to X) is true.
Mostly, this is done by some form of threat, which may be to the person or may be to something about which they care. The threat may be physical, emoti
Ad Ignorantum
Nothing is known about A. Yet a conclusion is drawn about A.
Facts may be given all around a particular subject, yet nothing specific is said about the subject. Based on this circumstantial evidence, it is assumed that something may be known about A. (ass
Ad Nauseum
The more X is repeated, the more true it becomes. Repeating something, over and over and over (yes, I know, I know), makes it right, true and more certain. (statistical, distraction)
Example: If I've told you once, I've told you a thousand times...
Ad novitam
X is new. Therefore it is better than that which it seeks to replace. Newer is better. X is always better in all ways than X-1. (assumptive)
Example: This new iPad is much better than last year's iPad.
Ad numeram
Many people do X. Therefore X is right. If other people do something, then it is a reasonable thing to do. (deductive)
Example: They were doing it, so I thought it would be ok to do it as well.
Ad populum
Also called bandwagon. The majority of people believe X, therefore X must be right. (assumptive, deductive)
Example: 9 out of 10 dentists would use Crest tooth paste.
Ad Verecundiam
Appeal to authority. An expert asserts A is true. Therefore A is true. (assertive)
Example: the president said we must go to war, therefore the war is just and necessary.
Affirming the Consequent
If A is true then B is true. B is true. Therefore A is true. If B follows A, then you can assume you can go back the other way also. (Aristotle)
Example: If you are cheating on me, you will be out of the house a lot. You are out of the house a lot, so you
Appeal to Flattery
You are a nice, good person. Nice people accept my arguments. Therefore you will accept my arguments. Compliment the other person. (distraction)
Example: You're the kind of person who understands this. Could you endorse me?
Appeal to Spite
The other person has spiteful feelings towards certain people. So frame your argument to support this, legitimizing the spitefulness, framing it as 'right'. Even if they do not have specific people in mind, there are generic groups which can be invoked, s
Biased Sample
Take a _________ or otherwise statistically invalid sample. Analyze the data. Draw conclusions and declare the results significant. (assumptive, deductive)
Example: We surveyed homes during the day and found that 66% of the population enjoy soaps.
Excluded Middle
Only extreme views are valid. Moderation is weak and uncertain. To be valid, an argument must have a clear opposite. Ignore any central position. Polarize any issues and then select one end of the spectrum. Criticize any middle position as floppy and comp
False dichotomy
To assume that only two possibilities exist when in fact more than two exist.
Reification
The _________ fallacy occurs where an abstract idea, concept or model is treated as if it were concrete and real. This is very similar to the Equivocation Fallacy, except that instead of using one word and changing its meaning through the argument, it tak
False Analogy
Use analogical comparisons to connect the item in question to another item that has desired characteristics. You can then claim that the first item has the desired property.
Example: People are like dogs. They respond best to clear discipline.
Hasty Generalization
Find a commonality in a few things and then generalize to assume that it is also true for all things in the same class. (assumptive and inductive)
Example: I met some children from Garton yesterday, who were very polite. I think all children from that are
Poisoning the Well
Discredit the other person before they speak. Or discredit the topic or argument that they may support. There are many ways of discrediting the person. Call them names. Talk about their lies. Show them to be unworthy. Tell how they are unintelligent, craz
Gambler's Fallacy
Chance is affected by more than random events. It can be controlled by luck, skill and specific identified events. When you hit a 'lucky' patch, you just cannot lose. When the odds are stacked against you, you have no chance. (statistical)
Example: You kn
Non causa pro causa
The difference between correlation and causation. Just because two events correlate (are close in time or space) does not mean that one has caused the other. (causation)
Example: Every time I eat chocolate it gives me acne.
Causal Reductionalism
Assuming a single cause or reason when there were actually multiple causes or reasons.
Example: The economy is in ruins because a Democrat is in the White House.
Broken Window
The idea that destruction and the money spent in recovery from destruction is a net benefit to society.
Example: We should go to war because it will create jobs and help the economy.
Definist Fallacy
Defining a term in such a way that makes one's position much easier to defend.
Example: Evolution is correct because creationism is the acceptance of a set of ridiculous beliefs espoused by uneducated people.
Denying the Correlative
Introducing alternatives when there are none. This can happen when you have two mutually exclusive statements presented as choices and opting instead to choose a third. Usually a distraction.
Example: Did you kill your landlord or not? Answer - I fought w
No True Scotsman
When a universal claim is refuted, rather than conceding the point or revising the claim, the claim is altered by moving from universal to specific.
Example: Only REAL patriots vote for Republicans.
Non Sequitur
When the conclusion does not follow from the premises.
Example: People like to walk on the beach. Beaches have sand. Sand floors in your house would be a great idea.
Fallacies of relevance
Ad hominem
Tu quoque
Appeal to emotion
Appeal to pity
Appeal to force
Inference from ignorance
Irrelevant conclusion
Appeal to inappropriate authority
Fallacies of False Dichotomy
Fallacy of false dichotomy
Fallacy of false dilemma
Fallacies of Unwarranted Assumption
Begging the question
Complex question
Hasty generalization
Biased sample
Fake precision
Coincidence
Post hoc ergo propter hoc
Common cause
Slippery slope
Fallacies of ambiguity
Equivocation
Amphiboly
Composition
Division
Emphasis
Straw man
Red herring
Informal fallacies
_________ involve a specific kind of error in the content of an inference, not in structure. These errors include, but are not limited to, mistakes of ambiguity, unwarranted assumption, and relevance.
Formal fallacies
_________ are reasoning errors that occur in the structure or form of an inference, not in the truth of its content. They target deductive inferences.
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