Adaptation
�Beneficial adjustments of organisms to environment
�Humans adapt BIOLOGICALLY and CULTURALLY.
Cultural Adaptation
People develop ways of doing things:
-Compatible with available resources
-Thrive within limitations of habitats
�Adaptations can be STABLE OVER LONG-TERM
Cultural Evolution
Process of cultures changing over time
�Changes NOT ALL POSITIVE
�Don't always improve conditions for all
�Complex, urban societies NOT more "highly evolved" than foragers
Cultural Ecology
Branch of Cultural Anthropology
-interrelationship of society's culture
and environment
Important Questions:
�Impact of environment on culture & vice versa
�How does subsistence strategy influence structure of society?
Subsistence Strategies
�Acquiring food from environment
�Varies by:
-Technology
-Available resources
Carrying Capacity
# people environment can support
with a given subsistence strategy
Main Subsistence Strategies
1.Foraging-(Hunting & Gathering)
2.Agriculture+horticulture
3.Pastoralism
4.Mixed strategies
U.S. is which of the main subsistence strategies
Mostly agricultural, but also pastoral and foragers.
Foraging (Hunting & Gathering)
�Oldest
�Wild food sources
-Most diversity
Foraging Societies
�Mobile
�Small groups
�Egalitarian
�Food sharing
�Camp is center of daily activity
Coastal Foraging Societies
�Resources abundant & concentrated
�Sedentary
�Large setts.
�Complex social org.
Foraging
�Not that time consuming
�Groups continue by choice
�Bushmen interacting w/ farmers & pastoralists for 2,000
years
Foraging Population
�Frequent nursing of children (4+ yrs) suppress ovulation
�fewer offspring, widely spaced
�Maintain pop. below carrying capacity
Agriculture
�Began ca. 11k years ago
�Depended on domestication of plants
Horticulture
�Small-scale cultivation of crops with hand tools
Slash-and-Burn Agriculture
�Vegetation cut & burned
�Crops planted among ashes
�Can be ecologically sound
Agricultural Societies
�Permanent settlements
�Larger groups
�More elaborate social organization
�Cities & civilization
Pastoralism
�Rely on herds of domesticated animals
�Usually nomadic
�Often interact with farmers
�Usually not egalitarian
Definition: Economic System
Means of producing, distributing, &
consuming goods
Anthropology of Economic Systems Definition:
How goods are produced, distributed, and consumed
IN CONTEXT OF LOCAL CULTURE.
Anthropology of Economic Systems
�Different approach than for capitalist societies
�Small scale societies-production/exchange not for profit
Small-scale non-industrial societies
�Groups of relatives usually control valuable resources
�Division of labor by age & gender, some craft specialization
�Goods produced when required
�Most goods consumed by group that produces them
Production: Types of Economic Resources
-Natural resources
-Raw materials
-Labor
-Technology
Production: Control of Resources
�All societies regulate access to valuable natural resources
-Land
-Water
Control of Resources: Capitalist societies
individuals determine rights to land & natural resources
Technological Resources
Technology = Tools & other equipment + knowledge of making & using
Division of Labor
Societies usually divide labor by gender & age
�Sometimes work inappropriate for women in
one society is performed by men in another
Division of Labor by Age
�What work is age appropriate varies
�Children usually play economic role in families
�Labor increases by age
Exchange
Conspicuous consumption
-Display of wealth for social prestige
Distribution: 3 Modes of Exchange
1. Reciprocity
2. Redistribution
3.Markets
Distribution 1st mode of Exchange: Reciprocity
�Item given with some expectation of future repayment/exchange
�Tied to various social relationships
�All levels of society participate
Generalized Reciprocity
No calculation of value, no specified repayment
Balanced Reciprocity
Direct obligation to reciprocate in equal value
Negative Reciprocity
Negative
-One party tries to get better end of deal
Barter
�People negotiate a direct exchange of one trade good for
another
Leveling Mechanism
�Obligation compelling sharing so no one accumulates more than others
�Richard Lee-Kalahari
Distribution 2nd mode of Exchange: Redistribution
�Goods go to central authority
� Tribute to chiefs, taxes to government
�Goods stored & managed
�Goods given back to people (re-distributed)
�Feasts or public events
�Not all goes back to commoners
�Goods support chief, craft specialists, public works, et
Potlach
Village chief gives away stockpiled food and
status goods in public ceremony
Motives: Redistribution
1.Gain/maintain position through display of wealth/generosity
2.Assure adequate standard of living for commoners
3.Establish alliances with leaders of other groups
Conspicuous Consumption
�The display of wealth for social prestige
Distribution 3rd mode of Exchange: Markets
�Goods brought to a central place
�Values assigned by supply & demand
�Items purchased with some form of money
Money
�Anything used to pay for goods or labor, or
measure their value
�Salt, shells, stones, beads, feathers, fur, bones,
cacao beans, metals
�special purpose or multipurpose