anthropology
holistic, biocultural, and comparative study of humanity; the systematic exploration of human biological and cultural diversity across time and space.
four subfields of general anthropology
cultural, archaeological, biological, linguistic
cultures
traditions and customs, transmitted through learning, that form and guide the beliefs and behavior of the people exposed to them
ethnography
provides an account of a particular community, society or culture
ethnology
examines, interpets, analyzes, and compares the results of ethnography - the data gathered in different societies
symbols
signs that have no necessary or natural connection to the things they stand for or signify
core values
key, basic central values of a culture
universal
found in every culture
generalities
common to several but not all human groups
particularities
unique to certain cultural traditions
subcultures
different symbol-based patterns and traditions associated with particular groups in the same complex society
ethnocentrism
the tendency to view one's own culture as superior and to apply one's own cultural values in judging the behavior and beliefs of people raised in other cultures.
cultural relativism
the viewpoint that behavior in one culture should not be judged by the standards of another
human rights
realm of justice and morality beyond and superior to the laws and customs of particular countries, cultures, and religions
cultural rights
vested not in individuals but in groups, such as religious and ethnic minorities and indigenous societies.
diffusion
borrowing of traits between cultures
acculturation
ongoing exchange of cultural features that results when groups have continuous firsthand contact
independent invention
proces by which humans innovate, creatively finding solutions to problems
globalization
a series of proceses that works transnationally to promote change in a world in which nations and people are increasingly interlinked and mutually dependent
sample
small, manageable study group from a larger population
interview schedule
ethnographer talks face-to-face with people
rapport
good, friendly, working relationship based on personal contact with hosts
genealogical method
well-established ethnographic technique to deal with kinship, descent and marriage
key informants
people who can provide the most complete or useful information about particular aspects of life
life history
recollection of a lifetime of experiences that provides a more intimate and personal cultural portrait that would be possible otherwise.
emic
investigates how local people think (insider perspective)
etic
scientific approach (outsider perspective)
reflexive ethnography
ethnographer puts his/her personal feelings and reactions to the field situation in the text
longitudinal research
long-term study of an area of population, usually based on repeated visits
call systems
vocal systems consist of a limited number of sounds that are produced only when particular environmental stimuli are encountered.
cultural transmission
fundamental attribute of language
linguistic displacement
ability to talk about things that are not present
kinesics
study of communication through body movements, stances, gestures, and expressions
phonology
study of speech sounds, considers which sounds are present and meaningful in a given language
morphology
studies the forms in which sounds combine to form morphemes (words and their meaningful parts)
lexicon
language's dictionary containing all its morphemes and their meanings
syntax
refers to the arrangement and order of words in phrases and sentences
phoneme
sound contrast that makes a difference, that differentiates meaning
phonetics
study of speech in general
phonemics
studies only the significant sound contrasts
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
the grammatical categories of particular languages lead their speakers to think about things in different ways
focal vocabulary
A set of words and distinctions that are particularly important to certain groups (those with particular foci of experience or activity), such as types of snow to Eskimos or skiers.
semantics
language's meaning system
sociolinguistics
investigates relationships between social and linguistic variation
diglossia
language with "high" (formal) and "low" (informal, familial) dialects
Black English Vernacular
relatively uniform dialect spoken by the majority of black youth in most parts of the United States today
historical linguistics
deals with longer-term change in variation of speech
daughter languages
languages that descend from the same parent language and that have been changing separately for hundreds/thousands of years
protolanguage
original language from which daughter languages develop
subgroups
languages within a taxonomy of related languages that are most closely related
adaptive strategy
a society's system of economic production
band
small group of fewer than 100 people, all related by kinship or marriage
egalitarian
contrasts in prestige are minor and are based on age and gender
horticulture
cultivation that makes use of none of the factors of production (land, labor, capital, and machinery)
agriculture
requires more labor than horticulture does because it uses land intensively and continuously.
pastoralists
people whose activities focus on such domesticated animals as cattle, sheep, goats, camels, yak, and reindeer
pastoral nomadism
the entire group moves with the animals throughout the year
transhumance
part of the group moves with the herds, but most people stay in the home village
economy
system of production, distribution, and consumption of resources
mode of production
way of organizing production
peasants
small-scale agriculturalists who live in nonindustrial states and have rent fund obligations
redistribution
operates when goods, services, or their equivalent move from the local level to a center
reciprocity
exchange between social equals, who normally are related by kinship, marriage, or another close personal tie
generalized reciprocity
someone gives to another person and expects nothing immediate in return
balanced reciprocity
people who are more distantly related, something is expected in return but not immediately
negative reciprocity
trading