anthropology
the study of human condition across time and space
subfields
-physical/biological
-archaeological
-linguistic
-socio-cultural
-applied
goals of anthropology
-to systematically study and observe
-to disseminate information
-to collaborate with research participants
-to bring about change
holistic
encompasses past, present and future; biological and psychological; language, kinship, economics, politics and religion
cultural relativism
notion that cultures should be analyzed with reference to their own histories and values
ethnocentrism
judging others cultures from the perspective of one's own culture
etic
outsiders perspective; examining society using concepts, categories, and rules derived from science
emic
insiders perspective, examining society using concepts, categories, and distinctions that are meaningful to members of that culture
natural selection
darwins theory; the primary mechanism of evolutionary change in living organisms, changes in traits occur over time as a result of differences in reproductive successes among individuals
survival of the fittest
coined by herbert spencer, those who won the struggle for survival were somehow able to pass those traits onto their offspring
social darwinism
human societies evolved from simple to more complex states
human evolution
-australopithecus
-genus homo: control of fire, capacity for language
-homo habilis: handy man
-homo erectus: roughly the size of modern humans
-homo sapiens: ability to learn increased, weapons
-neanderthals
-homo sapiens sapiens: sophisticated tools and
early city states
10,000 years ago, all over the world in river valleys
agriculture
10,000-13,000 years ago, domestication of plants and animals
research paradigms
ways in which scientists approach their work
-positive/empirical
-interpretivist/subjective
-critical theory
positive/empirical
the belief in an objective, bias-free, neutral "Truth
interpretivist/subjective
the "truth" is historically situated and socially constructed
critical theory
the "truth" is arbitrarily determined by those in positions of power
postmodernism
a theoretical perspective focusing on issues of power and voice
positionality
ethnographers today more more sensitive of how their own social statuses, personalities, and cultural backgrounds can affect their interpretations and representations of culture
ethnography
a research process in which the anthropologist closely observes, records and engages in the daily life of another culture
fieldwork
involves systematic gathering, recording, and interpretation of information based on first-hand study of a particular culture
quantitative
numerical measurement expressed in terms of numbers
qualitative
categorical measurement expressed by means of natural language description
participant observation
deep "hanging out," one must spend extended periods of time within the community of study
interviews
open-ended, semi-structured, structured; avoid asking leading question
culture shock
the experience of alienation, loneliness, and isolation in one's field site
aaa code of ethics
responsibility to people and animals, scholarship and science, the public, and students and trainees
informed consent
requirement that participants should understand the ways in which their participation and the release of the research data are likely to affect them
culture
the complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, customs and any other capabilities required (learned) by man as a member of society
characteristics of culture
-made of learned behaviors
-involve the use of language and symbols
-patterned and integrated to some degree
-members share norms and values
-they are in some way adaptive
-subject to change
areas of culture
kinship, political, subsistence, supernatural, linguistic
norms
an ideal cultural pattern that influences behavior in a society
values
a culturally defined idea of what is true, right and beautiful
subculture
system of perceptions, values, beliefs and customs that are significantly different from those of a larger, dominant culture within society
symbol
something that stands for something else
enculturation
the process of learning to become a member of a particular cultural group
acculturation
when an individual from another culture adapts traits of a new one
adaptation
change in biological structure or life ways of an individual or population by which it becomes better fitted to survive and reproduce in its environment
innovation
a new variation on an existing cultural pattern that is subsequently accepted by other members of society
diffusion
the spread of cultural elements from one culture to another through cultural contact
transculturation
the transformation of adapted cultural traits, resulting in new cultural forms
assimilation
take in new information or experiences and incorporate them into existing ideas
characteristics of language
-conventionality: words are connected to things for which they stand
-productive: combine words and sounds into new meaningful utterances they have never heard before
-displacement: capacity of human language to describe things not in the immediate enviro
subsystems of language
-phonology: study of speech sounds, categories and rules for forming vocal symbols
-grammar: morphology, syntax
-semantics: relating vocal symbols to their referents
dialect
regional or social variety that develops when people are separated by geographic or social barriers
proxemics
interrelated observations and theories of humans use of time and space as a specialized elaboration of culture
kinesics
study of communication through body movements, stances, gestures, and facial expressions
anthropology of religion
seek to understand and describe religion as a system for organizing ideas about the supernatural, as the beliefs and behaviors that reflect those ideas, in relationship to the social and environmental context
religion
cultural knowledge of the supernatural that people use to understand and cope with ultimate problems of human existence
functions of religion
to explain aspects of the physical and social environment that are important and meaningful
animism
the belief that souls or spiritual beings exist and can embody animate and inanimate objects
mana
sacred, impersonal forces existing in the universe that resides in people, animals, plants and objects
magic
strategies people use to influence and control supernatural forces or beings towards a specific aim
totemism
serve as a form of kinship for a particular group, usually family or clan
shamanism
religious system that enables part time religious specialists to operate between the supernatural and physical realm in order to cure or heal
polytheism
the belief in worship of multiple deities
monotheism
the belief that only one god exists
ritual
culturally standardized and stylized, formal and repetitive social acts that are symbolic in nature
taboo
opposite of rituals, breaking may lead to bad luck
fetishes
charms, material objects believed to embody supernatural power
rites of passage
ritual customs associated with the transition from one place or stage in life to another; marks change in place, social status/position, age
symbolism
symbols provide the content of ritual, the way in which symbols represent and unify a rich diversity of meanings
functions of kinship
provides continuity between generations; defines a universe of other on whom a person can depend for aid
kinship systems
the totality of kin relations, kin groups, and terms for classifying kin in a society
consanguinity
family of orientation; blood relative; biological parents
affinity
family of procreation; relative by marriage; in-laws
unilineal descent
membership in a descent group is based on links either on the paternal or maternal line
matrilineal
links relatives through females only
patrilineal
links relatives through males only
bilateral descent
tracing descent on both mother and father's lines simultaneously
ambilineal descent
individuals may choose to affiliate with either their mother or father's descent group, but not simultaneously with both
neolocal
a couple establishes residence apart from either spouses family
matrilocal
married couple lives and raises children at wife's family's compound
patrilocal
married couple lives and raises children at husband's family's compound
ambilocal
a couple chooses residence and child rearing with either spouse's family
functions of marriage
need to regulate sexual activity, responsibility for child rearing, extends alliances by linking different families and kin groups together
endogamy
rule prescribing marriage within a certain group
exogamy
rule prescribing marriage outside a particular group
monogamy
permits only one spouse to be married to another spouse at any given time
polygamy
plural marriages
polyandry
marriage of one woman to more than one man
polygyny
marriage of one man to more than one woman
levirate
a custom whereby a man marries the widow of his dead brother
sororate
a custom when a woman dies, her kin group supplies a sister as a wife for the widower
arranged marriage
the process by which senior family members exercise a great degree of control over the choice of their children's spouses
love marriage
least common form of marriage, where the couple chooses their partner based upon physical attraction, emotional and sexual compatibility
cross cousins
cousins from a parents opposite-sexed sibling, most common
parallel cousins
cousins from a parents same sex sibling
incest taboos
prohibitions on sexual relationships between certain relatives
foraging
hunting and gathering, obtain subsistence by collecting whats naturally available, band social structure, generalized reciprocity
pastoralism
obtaining food by herding domesticated animals, seasonal moves, village life, generalized and balanced reciprocity
horticulture
non-intensive plan cultivation that lacks the use of major means of production found in industrial societies, balanced reciprocity, "chief
agriculture
farming based on intensive cultivation of permanent landholdings, agrarian society
industrialism
the transition to machines and chemical processes for the production of food items and material goods, negative reciprocity
potlatching
festive event involving competitive feasting, giving away of food, blankets and cooper
market exchange
an economic system in which goods and services are bought and sold at a money price determined primarily by supply and demand
hegemony
a form of ideological domination based on the consent of the dominated, a consent that is secured through the diffusion of the worldview of the dominant class
reciprocity
mutual exchange between social equals
-generalized: exchange with no immediate/specific return expected
-balanced: reciprocate in equal value within specific time
-negative: the desire for material wealth at a minimum price
social differentiation
relative access individuals and groups have to basic material resources
egalitarian society
no one person or group has any more privileged access to resources, power or prestige than any other, generalized or balanced reciprocity, associated with bands and tribes
rank society
institutionalized difference in prestige, but no important restrictions on access to basic resources, chiefdom, horticultural societies, balanced reciprocity
stratified society
formal, permanent social and economic inequality, in which some people are denied access to basic resources, market exchange systems, agriculture and industrialism
bands
consist of a small group of people related by blood or marriage who are loosely associated with a territory in which they forage, generalized reciprocity, no formal leadership, social order maintained by gossip, ridicule and avoidance
tribes
culturally distinct populations who believe themselves to be descended from a common ancestor, pastoralists and horticulturalists, generalized and balanced reciprocity, "big men" leaders, warfare
chiefdoms
societies with social ranking in which political integration is achieved through an office of centralized leadership, cultivators and pastoralists
the state
a hierarchical, centralized form of political organization in which a central government has a legal monopoly over the use of force
social stratification
the unequal distribution of goods and services throughout a population
gender
the cultural and societal classification of masculine and feminine
third gender roles
gender categories that are neither male nor female
division of labor
how society allocates tasks to each individual member
gender hierarchy
the ways in which these gendered activities and attributes are differentially valued and related to the distribution of resources, prestige, and power in a society
class systems
a form of social stratification in which the different strata form a continuum and social mobility is possible
caste systems
ascribed, based upon birth, consists of ranked, culturally distinct, interdependent, endogamous groups
agency
defined in terms of a persons ability to actively engage with, appropriate, challenge, or subvert the hegemonic
hegemony
indirect form of imperial dominance
race
cultural construction based largely on arbitrary, perceived phenotypical differences
ethnicity
perceived differences in culture, national origin, and historical experience by which groups of people are distinguished from others in the same social environment
ethnic groups
categories of people who see themselves as sharing an ethnic identity that differentiates them from other groups or from the larger society as a whole
ethnic conflict
disputes over territory claimed by one or more members who identify with a certain ethnic group
globalization
refers to the increasing global relationships of culture, people and economic activity
transnationalism
social phenomenon and scholarly research agenda grown out of the heightened interconnectivity between people and the receding social and economic significance of boundaries among nation states