Cost Center
has control over costs, but not over revenue or the use of investment funds. The managers of cost centers are expected to minimize costs while providing the level of products and services demanded by other parts of the organization.
Profit Center
has control over costs and revenue, but not over the use of investment funds. Profit center managers are often evaluated by comparing actual profit to targeted or budgeted profit.
Investment Center
has control over cost, revenue and investments in operating assets. Investment center managers are usually evaluated using return on investment (ROI) or residual income measures, as discussed later in the chapter.
Segment
A segment is a part or activity of an organization about which managers would like cost, revenue or profit data. (Cost, profit and investement centers are segments as are sales territories, individual stores, service centers, manufacturing plants, marketi
Traceable fixed cost
is a fixed cost that is incurred because of the existence of the segment and would disappear if the segment were eliminated. (Would disappear if the segment were eliminated.)
Common Fixed cost
is a fixed cost that supports the operations of more than one segment, but is not traceable in whole or in part to any one segment. (Would not disappear if the segment were eliminated.)
ROI
net operating income/Average operating assets
Net operating income
is used in the ROI formula and is income before interest and taxes and is sometimes referred to as EBIT (earnings before interest and taxes.)
Operating Assets
include cash, accounts receivable, inventory, plant and equipment, and all other assets held for operating purposes.
ROI (also be expressed in terms of margin and turnover)
Margin x Turnover
Margin
Net operating income/sales
Turnover
Sales/Average operating assets
Residual Income
is the net operating income that an investment center earns above the minimum required return on its operating assets.
Residual Income
Net Operating Income - (Average operating assets x minimum required rate of return)
Transfer Price
is the price charged when one segment of an organization provides a good or service to another segment in the organization.
Average Operating Assets
Beginning Balance + Ending Balance / 2 = Average Operating Assets
Segmented margin
Revenue - variable costs = contribution margin - total fixed costs = segmented margin - common fixed costs = net operating income
Avoidable cost
a cost that can be eliminated in whole or in part by choosing one alternative over another.
Two categories of cost that are never relevant in decisions.
1.Sunk Costs, 2.Future costs that do not differ between the alternatives
Sunk Cost
a cost that has already been incurred and cannot be avoided regardless of what a manager decides to do.
To identify costs that are avoidable in a particular decision and are therefore relevant,
1.Eleminate costs and benefits that do not differ between alternatives. These irrelevant costs consist of: sunk costs and future costs that do not differ between alternatives. 2. Use the remaining costs and benefits that do differ between alternatives in
Fundamental concept of managerial accounting
managers need different costs for different purposes.
The reduction in resale value of an asset through use over time is often called
real or economic depreciation.
Segment Margin
is the difference between the revenue generated by a segment and its own traceable costs.
Make or Buy decision
whether to produce a part internally or to buy the part externally from a supplier.
Special Order
is a one-time order that is not considered part of the company's normal ongoing business.
In general, a special order is profitable if
the incremental revenue from the special order exceeds the incremental costs of the order.
Target Costing
management estimates how much the market will be willing to pay for the new product even before the new product has been designed.
Cost-based approach (Cost plus)
the product is first designed and produced, then its cost is determined and its price is computed by adding a markup to the cost.
Constraint
when a limited resource of some type restricts the company's ability to satisfy demand,
Contribution Margin per unit of constrained resource
computed by dividing a product's contribution margin per unit by the amount of the constrained resource required to make a unit of the product.
Bottleneck
machine or process that is limiting overall output.
Relaxing (or elevating) the constraint
increasing the capacity of the bottleneck
Direct Labor hours per unit
Direct Labor per unit/Direct Labor Rate (per hour)
Contribution Margin per DLH
Contribution Margin/Direct Labor per unit
Reduce Expenses
Add to Net Operating Income
Operating Assets
Variable expenses - fixed expenses
Reducing or lessening the average level of inventory
decreases average operating assets
using less materials
add to net operating income
Purchases to machinery and equipment, reducing costs.
add to average operating assets and add the reduction of costs to net operating income.
Obsolete inventory written as a loss
reduce net operating income and average operating assets
Constrained Resource by Contribution Margin
Divide Contribution Margin per unit by constrained resource