Abstract Language
describes ideas and qualities, rather than observable or specific things
Ad Hoc argument
giving an after the fact explanation which doesn't apply to the other situations. It usually doesn't make sense or explain anything at all.
Ad Hominem
attack on one's opponent, rather than the opponent's argument
Allegory
symbolic story that has a second meaning beneath the surface one
Alliteration
repetition of initial consonant sounds in words
Allusion
indirect reference to famous events or characters from history, literature, or mythology
Ambiguity
event or situation that may be interpreted in more than one way; intentional vagueness
Analogy
a literary device employed to serve as a basis for comparison. It is assumed that what applies to the parallel situation also applies to the original circumstance. In other words, it is the comparison between two different items.
Anaphora
repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of two or more sentences in a row
Anecdote
a brief account of some interesting or entertaining and often humorous incident
Antecedent
the word, phrase or clause to which a pronoun refers. (can be called a pronoun referent).
Antithesis
juxtaposition of two contrasting ideas
Aphorism
a terse statement of known authorship, which expresses a general truth or moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point.
Apostrophe
address to the dead as though they were living; to the inanimate as if animate; to the absent as if present
Archetype
stereotype of literature, an original model on which something is patterned
Argumentation
exploring a problem by examining all sides of it; persuasion through reason
Assonance
repetition of similar vowel sounds
Assumption
when details are not stated but must be inferred by the reader
Asyndeton
series of words separated by commas without conjunctions
Attitude
The speaker's position on a subject as revealed through his or her tone
Authorial Aside
a technique in which the author steps outside the story, speaking directly to the reader to reveal an attitude, purpose or meaning.
Balance
construction in which both halves of the sentence have the same length and importance
Begging the question
Is a logical fallacy in which the claim that is made is based on grounds that are in doubt.
Catharsis
cleansing release of unhealthy emotions
Causal Relationship
one thing results from another
Chiasmus
a statement consisting of two parallel parts in which the second part is structurally reversed
Circular reasoning
This mistake in logic restates the premise rather than giving a reason for holding that premise
Cliche
expression so often used its freshness and originality have worn off
Colloquial Diction
everyday usage that may contain terms accepted in a group but not universally acceptable
Comic Relief
humor in the serious action of a tragedy; enriches the quality of the work
Complex sentence
a sentence with one independent clause and at least one dependent clause
Compound sentence
composed of two or more independent clauses, which are joined by a conjunction or a semicolon
Compound-Complex sentence
two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses
Conceit
an extended witty, paradoxical, or startling metaphor
Concrete Language
describes specific, observable things rather than ideas or qualities
Connotation
interpretative level of a word based on its associated images rather than literal meaning
Consonance
repetition of consonant sounds; not limited to the first letter of words
Conventional
following traditional techniques of writing
Cumulative
sentence that begins with the main idea and expands on that idea with a series of details
Declarative sentence
a sentence that makes a statement
Deductive reasoning
reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.)
Denotation
dictionary definition of a word
Descriptive Detail
when an essay uses this phrase, look for the writer's sensory description. Descriptive detail appealing to the visual sense is usually the most predominant, but don't overlook other sensory detail.
Devices
the figures of speech, syntax, diction and other stylistic elements that collectively produce a particular artistic effect.
Dialectic
a method of logical argumentation that typically addresses conflicting positions.
Diction
a writer's or speaker's choice of words
Didactic
literature designed to teach or instruct
Digression
temporary departure from the main subject in speaking or writing
Discursive Structure
organization used in an argument or essay
Dramatic Irony
reader or audience knows more about the events of a story than the character in the story
Elegy
formal poem lamenting the death of a particular person
Elliptical
deliberate omission of words implied by context
Empathy
reader understands closely what the character is feeling
Epithet
adjective used to point out a characteristic of a person or thing
Ethos
appeals to the audience's sense of morals or principles
Euphemism
mild word used to substitute an unpleasant or offensive word
Exclamatory
an expression of strong feeling that ends with an exclamation point: Oh, what a wonderful feeling! Oh, what a wonderful day!
Figurative Language
Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid
Foreshadowing
method used to build suspense by providing hints of what is to come
Formal Diction
used in serious books and lofty discourse
Generalization
basing a claim upon an isolated example or asserting that a claim is true rather than probable
Genre
major category into which a literary work fits
Hyperbole
a figure of speech that uses deliberate exaggeration to achieve an effect.
Idiom
use of words or grammatical construction peculiar to a given language, or an expression that cannot be translated literally into a second language
Imagery
use of language to represent sense experience
Imperative sentence
A sentence that gives a command
Induction reasoning
The use of a relatively small set of specific observations as the basis for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations.
Informal Diction
found in relaxed but polite and cultivated conversation
Interrogative
a question that always ends with a question mark: If I won the lottery, do you think I would share the money with you?
Invective
an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.
Inversion
word order that places a modifier or verb before the subject
Irony
an unexpected twist or contrast between what happens and what was intended or expected to happen. It can be verbal, situational or dramatic.
Juxtaposition
placement of two things side by side for the purposes of examination
Language
when you're asked to "analyze the language," concentrate on how the elements of language combine to form a whole-how diction, syntax, figurative language, and sentence structure create a cumulative effect.
Logos
appeals to the audience's sense of logic and reasoning
Metaphor
comparison without using "like" or "as
Metonymy
a figure of speech in which one thing is represented by another that is commonly and often physically associated with it.
Mood
atmosphere or feeling created by a literary work
Motif
frequently recurring character, incident, or concept in a work of literature
Narrative Structure
chronological organization used to convey a story
Narrative Technique
the style of telling the "story," even if the passage is nonfiction. Concentrate on the order of events and on their detail in evaluating a writer's technique.
Negative-Positive
sentence that begins by stating what is not true and then ending by stating what is true
Olfactory Imagery
use of language to represent an experience pertaining to smell
Onomatopoeia
use of words that sound like they mean or signify meaning through sound effects.
Oxymoron
paradox that combines terms normally seen as opposites
Paradox
statement that appears contradictory yet expresses a truth when viewed from another angle
Parallelism
similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses
Parenthesis
insertion of some verbal unit in a position that interrupts the normal flow of the sentence
Parody
comic imitation of another work often for ridicule
Pathos
appeals to the audience's emotions
Pedantic
scholarly, academic writing that borders on lecturing
Periodic Sentence
a complex sentence in which the main clause comes last and is preceded by the subordinate clause
Personification
attribution of human qualities to inanimate objects or abstract concepts
Polysyndeton
sentence that uses "and" or another conjunction (with no commas) to separate items in a series
Post hoc argument
This fallacy cites an unrelated event that occurred earlier as the cause of a current situation
Pun
play on words that utilizes a word's multiple meanings
Realism
faithful representation of reality to make a story more believable
Red Herring
when an author raises an irrelevant issue to draw attention away from the real issue
Rhetoric
the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently and persuasively
Rhetorical Criticism
analyses the techniques employed in a literary work to impose the author's view on the reader
Rhetorical Purpose
the reason for the speaker's remarks; or a definition of the attitude that the author would like the reader to adopt.
Rhetorical Question
question used to emphasize a point; no answer is expected
Rhetorical Strategies
different methods of writing which a writer can incorporate into their writing to make it more effective
Sarcasm
verbal irony that uses insincere praise to express bitter and caustic disapproval
Satire
form of literature in which irony, sarcasm, and ridicule are employed to attack human vice and folly
Selection of detail
facts, circumstances, characteristics, techniques, etc., used by the writer to convey tone, purpose or effect.
Sentence Structure
the grammatical arrangement of words in sentences
Simile
comparison using "like" or "as
Simple sentence
has only one independent clause, no dependent clauses, and is limited to one subject and one predicate
Situational Irony
contrast between what is normally expected and what actually occurs
Slang
newly coined words that are not yet a part of formal usage
Structure
organization or arrangement of various elements in a work
Style
arrangement of words in a manner that expresses the author's individuality and his or her intent
Stylistic Devices
an essay that mentions stylistic devices is asking you to note and analyze all of the elements in language that contribute to style-such as diction, syntax, tone, attitude, figures of speech, connotations and repetition.
Syllogism
format of a formal argument that consists of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.
Symbol
character, object, or event in literature that represents something larger than itself
Synecdoche
figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent the whole
Synesthesia
describing one kind of sensation in terms of another ("a loud color", "a sweet sound")
Syntax
manner in which words are joined to make phrases, clauses, and sentences
Theme
main idea that the author expresses in a literary work
Thesis
claim or proposition that a writer must strive to prove effectively and thoroughly
Tone
attitude of the speaker of a work of literature expresses to the reader through language
Understatement
the deliberate representation of something as lesser in magnitude than it actually is
Zeugma
The use of a word to modify two or more words, but used for different meanings. He closed the door and his heart on his lost love