Shi Huangdi
founder of the brief Qin dynasty in 221 B.C.E.
Qin dynasty
established in 221 B.C.E. at the end of the Warring States period following the decline of the Zhou dynasty; fell in 207 B.C.E.
Han dynasty
Chinese dynasty that succeeded the Qin in 202 B.C.E.; ruled for the next 400 years
dynasty
a family of kings
Zhou
originally a vassal family of Shang China; possibly Turkic in origin; overthrew the Shang and established second historical Chinese dynasty that flourished 1122 to 256 B.C.E.
Confucius
also known as Kung Fuzi; major Chinese pilosopher born in 6th century B.C.E.; author of Analects; philosophy based on need for restoration of order through advice of superior men to be found among the shi
Great Wall
Chinese defensive fortification intended to keep out the nomadic invaders from the north; initiated during Qin dynasty and reign of Shi Huangdi
Silk Road
a network of roads through central Asia known collectively as this
Paleolithic (Old Stone) Age
the Old Stone Age ending in 12,000 B.C.E.; typified by use of crude stone tools and hunting and gathering for subsistence
Neolithic (New Stone) Age
the New Stone Age between 8000 and 5000 B.C.E.; period in which adaptation of sedentary agriculture occurred; domestication of plants and animals accomplished
Neolithic revolution
the succession of technological innovations and changes in human organization that led to the development of agriculture, 8500-3500 B.C.E.
hunting and gathering
the original human economy, ultimately eclipsed by agriculture; groups hunt for meat and forage for grains, nuts, and berries
Bronze Age
from about 4000 B.C.E., when bronze tools were first introduced in the Middle East, to about 1500 B.C.E., when iron began to replace it
Homo sapiens sapiens
the humanoid species that emerged as most successful at the end of the Paleolithic period
slash and burn agriculture
a system of cultivation typical of shifting cultivators; forest floors cleared by fire then planted
band
a level of social organization normally consisting of 20 to 30 people; nomadic hunters and gatherers; labor divided on a gender basis
�atal H�y�k
early urban culture based on sedentary agriculture; located in modern southern Turkey; was larger in population than Jericho, had greater degree of social stratification
civilization
societies distinguished by reliance on sedentary agriculture, ability to produce food surpluses, and existence of nonfarming elites, as well as merchant and manufacturing groups
cuneiform
a form of writing developed by the Sumerians using a wedge-shaped stylus and clay tablets
nomads
cattle- and sheep-herding societies normally found on the fringes of civilized societies; commonly referred to as "barbarian" by civilized societies
Mesopotamia
literally "between the rivers"; the civilizations that arose in the alluvial plain of the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys
Sumerians
people who migrated into Mesopotamia c. 4000 B.C.E.; created first civilization within region; organized area into city-states
ziggurats
massive towers usually associated with Mesopotamian temple complexes
city-state
a form of political organization typical of Mesopotamian civilizations; consisted of agricultural hinterlands ruled by an urban-based king
Babylonian Empire
unified all of Mesopotamia c. 1800 B.C.E.; collapsed due to foreign invasion c. 1600 B.C.E.
Hammurabi
(r. 1792-1750 B.C.E.) the most important ruler of the Babylonian empire; responsible for codification of law
pharaoh
title of kings of ancient Egypt
pyramids
monumental architecture typical of Old Kingdom Egypt; used as burial sites for pharaohs
Kush
an African state that developed along the upper reaches of the Nile c. 1000 B.C.E.; conquered Egypt and ruled it for several centuries
Indus River valley
river sources in Himalayas to mouth in Arabian Sea; location of Harappan civilization
Harappa
along with Mohenjodaro, major urban complex of the Harappan civilization; laid out on planned grid pattern
Mohenjo Daro
along with Harappa, major urban complex of the Harappan civilization; laid out on planned grid pattern
Yellow River
also known as the Huanghe; site of development of sedentary agriculture in china
Shang
first Chinese dynasty for which archeological evidence exists; capital located in Ordos bulge of the Huanghe; flourished 1600 to 1046 B.C.E.
oracles
shamans or priests in Chinese society who foretold the future through interpretations of animal bones cracked by heat; inscriptions on bones led to Chinese writing
ideographs
pictographic characters grouped together to create new concepts; typical of Chinese writing
Chichimecs
people regarded barbarous by the Mexicans; literally means "sons of the dog
Phoenicians
seafaring civilization located on the shores of the eastern Mediterranean; established colonies throughout the Mediterranean
monotheism
the exclusive worship of a single god; introduced by the Jews into Western civilization
Buddha
creator of a major Indian and Asian religion; born in 6th century B.C.E. as son of local ruler among Aryan tribes located near Himalayas; became an ascetic; found enlightenment under botree; taught that enlightenment could be achieved only by abandoning d
Alexander the Great
successor of Philip II; successfully conquered Persian Empire prior to his death in 323 B.C.E.; attempted to combine Greek and Persian cultures
Himalayas
mountain region marking the northern border of the Indian subcontinent; site of the Aryan settlements that formed small kingdoms or warrior republics
monsoons
seasonal winds crossing Indian subcontinent and southeast Asia; during summer bring rains
Aryans
Indo-European nomadic pastoralists who replaced Harappan civilization; militarized society
Sanskrit
the sacred and classical Indian language
Vedas
Aryan hymns originally transmitted orally but written down in sacred books from the 6th century B.C.E.
Mahabharata
Indian epic of war, princely honor, love, and social duty; written down in the last centuries B.C.E.; previously handed down in oral form
Ramayana
one of the great epic tales from classical India; traces of adventures of King Rama and his wife, Sita; written 4th to 2nd centuries B.C.E.
Upanishads
Later books of the Vedas; contained sophisticated and sublime philosophical ideas; utilized by Brahmans to restore religious authority
varnas
clusters of caste groups in Aryan society; four social castes- Brahmans (priests), warriors, merchants, and peasants; beneath four Aryan castes was group of socially untouchable Dasas
untouchables
law social caste in Hindu culture; performed tasks that were considered polluting-street sweeping, removal of human waste, and tanning
Indra
chief deity of the Aryans; depicted as a colossal, hard-drinking warrior
Chandragupta Maurya
founder of Maurya dynasty; established first empire in Indian subcontinent; first centralized government since Harappan civilization
Mauryan
dynasty established in Indian subcontinent in 4th century B.C.E. following invasion by Alexander the Great
Ashoka
Grandson of Chandragupta Maurya; completed conquests of Indian subcontinent; converted to Buddhism and sponsored spread of new religion throughout his empire
dharma
the caste position and career determined by a person's birth; Hindu culture required that one accept one's social position and perform occupation to the best of one's ability in order to have a better situation in the next life
Kushans
those that lived in the African state that developed along the upper reaches of the Nile c. 1000 B.C.E.; conquered Egypt and ruled it for several centuries
Guptas
dynasty that succeeded the Kushans in the 3rd century C.E.; built empire that extended to all but the southern regions of Indian subcontinent; less centralized than Mauryan Empire
Kautilya
political advisor to Chandragupta Maurya; one of the authors of Arthashastra; believed in scientific application of warfare
gurus
originally referred to as Brahmans who served as teachers for the princes of the imperial court of the Guptas
Shiva
Hindu, god of destruction and reproduction; worshipped as the personification of cosmic forces of change
Vishnu
the Brahman, later Hindu, god of sacrifice; widely worshipped
reincarnation
the successive attachment of the soul to some animate form according to merits earned in previous lives
nirvana
the Buddhist state of enlightenment, a state of tranquility
Kamasutra
written by Vatsayana during Gupta era; offered instructions on all aspects of life for higher-caste males, including grooming, hygiene, etiquette, selection of wives, and lovemaking
stupas
stone shrines built to house pieces of bone or hair and personal possessions said to be relics of the Buddha; preserved Buddhist architectural forms
scholar-gentry
Chinese class created by the marital linkage of the local land-holding aristocracy with the office-holding shi; superseded shi as governors of China
Cyrus the Great
established massive Persian Empire by 550 B.C.E.; successor state to Mesopotamian empires
Zoroastrianism
animist religion that saw material existence as battle between forces of good and evil; stressed the importance of moral choice; righteous lived on after death in "House of Song"; chief religion of Persian empire
Olympic Games
one of the pan-Hellenic rituals observed by al Greek city-states; involved athletic competitions and ritual celebrations
Pericles
Athenian political leader during 5th century B.C.E.; guided development of Athenian Empire; died during early stages of Peloponnesian War
Peloponnesian Wars
wars from 431 to 404 B.C.E. between Athens and Sparta for dominance in southern Greece; resulted in Spartan victory but failure to achieve political unification of Greece
Philip II
ruled Macedon from 359 to 336 B.C.E.; founder of centralized kingdom; later conquered rest of Greece, which was subjected to Macedonian authority
Hellenistic period
that culture associated with the spread of Greek influence as a result of Macedonian conquests; often seen as the combination of Greek culture with eastern political forms
Alexandra, Egypt
one of the cities founded by and named for Alexander the Great; site of ancient Mediterranean's greatest library; center of literary studies
Roman republic
the balanced constitution of Rome from c. 510 to 47 B.C.E.; featured an aristocratic Senate, a panel of magistrates, and several popular assemblies
Punic Wars
fought between Rome and Carthage to establish dominance in the western Mediterranean; won by Rome after three separate conflicts
Carthage
Originally a Phoenician colony in northern Africa; became a major port and commercial power in the western Mediterranean; fought the Punic Wars with Rome for dominance of the western Mediterranean
Hannibal
Great Carthaginian general during Second Punic War; successfully invaded Italy but failed to conquer Rome; finally defeated at Battle of Zama
Caesar, Julius
Roman general responsible for conquest of Gaul; brought army back to Rome and overthrew republic; assassinated in 44 B.C.E. by conservative senators
Augustus Caesar
name given to Octavian following his defeat of Mark Anthony and Cleopatra; first emperor of Rome
Diocletian
Roman emperor from 284 to 305 C.E.; restored later empire by improved administration and tax collection
Constantine
Roman emperor from 312 to 337 C.E.; established second capital at Constantinople; attempted to use religious force of Christianity to unify empire spiritually
polis
city-state form of government; typical of Greek political organization from 800 to 400 B.C.E.
direct democracy
where people participate directly in assemblies that make laws and select leaders, rather than electing representatives
Senate
assembly of Roman aristocrats; advised on policy within the republic; one of the early elements of the Roman constitution
consuls
two chief executives or magistrates of the Roman republic; elected by an annual assembly dominated by aristocracy
Cicero
Conservative Roman senator; Stoic philosopher; one of great orators of his day; killed in reaction to assassination of Julius Caesar
Aristotle
Greek philosopher; teacher of Alexander the Great; knowledge based on observation of phenomena in material world
Stoics
Hellenistic group of philosophers; emphasized inner moral independence cultivated by strict discipline of the body and personal bravery
Socrates
Athenian philosopher of later 5th century B.C.E.; tutor of Plato; urged rational reflection of moral decisions; condemned to death for corrupting minds of Athenian young
Sophocles
Greek writer of tragedies; author of Oedipus Rex
Iliad
Greek epic poem attributed to Homer but possibly the work of many authors; defined gods and human nature that shaped Greek mythos
Odyssey
Greek epic poem attributed to Homer but possibly the work of many authors; defined gods and human nature that shaped Greek mythos
Doric
along with Ionian and Corinthian, distinct style of Hellenistic architecture; the least ornate of the three styles
Ionic
along with Doric and Corinthian, distinct style of Hellenistic architecture; more ornate than Doric but less than Corinthian
Corinthian
along with Doric and Ionian, distinct style of Hellenistic architecture; the most ornate of the three styles
Axum
kingdom located in Ethiopian highlands; replaced Mero� in first century C.E.; received strong influence from Arabian peninsula; eventually converted to Christianity
Ethiopia
a Christian kingdom that developed in the highlands of eastern Africa under the dynasty of King Lalaibela; retained Christianity in the face of Muslim expansion elsewhere in Africa
Sahara
desert running across northern Africa; separates the Mediterranean coast from southern Africa
Shinto
religion of early Japanese culture; devotees worshipped numerous gods and sprits associated with the natural world; offers of food and prayers made to gods and nature spirits
Olmec culture
cultural tradition that arose at San Lorenzo and La Venta in Mexico c. 1200 B.C.E.; featured irrigated agriculture, urbanism, elaborate religion, beginnings of calendrical and writing systems
Teotihuacan
site of classic culture in central Mexico; urban center with important religious functions; supported by intensive agriculture in surrounding regions; population of as much as 200,000
Maya
classic culture emerging in southern Mexico and Central America contemporary with Teotihuacan; extended over broad region; featured monumental architecture, written language, calendrical and mathematical systems, highly developed religion
Inca
group of clans centered at Cuzco that were able to create empire incorporating various Andean cultures; term also used for leader of empire
Polynesia
islands contained in a rough triangle whose points lie in Hawaii, New Zealand, and Easter Island
Yellow Turbans
Chinese Daoists who launched a revolt in 184 C.E. in China promising a golden age to be brought about by divine magic
Sui
dynasty that succeeded the Han in China; emerged from strong rulers in northern China; united all of northern China and reconquered southern China
Tang
dynasty that succeeded the Sui in 618 C.E.; more stable that previous dynasty
Rajput
regional princes in western India; emphasized military control of their regions
Devi
Mother goddess within Hinduism; widely spread following collapse of the Guptas; encouraged new emotionalism in religious ritual
Islam
major world religion having its origins in 610 C.E. in the Arabian peninsula; meaning literally submission; based on prophecy of Muhammad
Allah
supreme God in strictly monotheistic Islam
Byzantine Empire
eastern half of Roman empire following collapse of western half of old empire; retained Mediterranean culture, particularly Greek; later lost Palestine, Syria, and Egypt to Islam; capital at Constantinople
Justinian
early Byzantine emperor, responsible for major building in Constantinople and a codification of Roman law; his efforts to recapture some additional previously Roman territory ended in failure
Augustine (Saint)
influential church father and theologian (354-430 C.E.); born in Africa and ultimately bishop of Hippo in Africa; champion of Christian doctrine against various heresies and very important in the long-term development of Christian thought on such issues a
Coptic
Christian sect in Egypt, later tolerated after Islamic takeover
bodhisattvas
Buddhist holy men; built up spiritual merits during their lifetimes; prayers even after death could aid people to achieve reflected holiness
Mahayana
Chinese version of Buddhism; placed considerable emphasis on Buddha as god or savior
Jesus of Nazareth
prophet and teacher among the Jews; believed by Christians to be the Messiah; executed c. 30 C.E.
Paul
one of the first Christian missionaries; moved away from insistence that adherents of the new religion follow Jewish law; use of Greek as language of Church
pope
bishop of Rome; head of the Christian church in western Europe
Benedict of Nursia
founder of monasticism in what had been the western half of the Roman Empire; established Benedictine Rule in the 6th century; paralleled development of Basil's rules in Byzantine Empire
animism
a religious outlook that sees gods in many aspects of nature and propitiates them to help control and explain nature; typical of Mesopotamian religions