Gabriel the Angel
Muslims believe that this powerful character conveyed the message of Islam, and commanded Muhammad to preach the revelations given
Herodotus
A Greek historian who applied the name Arab to the entire peninsula, calling it Arabia
Arabs
Semitic-speaking people of southwestern Asia. Mentioned in Greek sources of the fifth century B.C.E. and even in the Old Testament.
Bedouin
Nomadic tribes originally from northern Arabia who became important traders after the domestication of the camel during the first millennium B.C.E. Early converts to Islam, their values and practices deeply affected Muhammad
sheikh
Ruling member of the Bedouin tribes
majlis
Council of elders in the Bedouin tribes
Ancient Arabs
Were polytheistic, with a supreme god known as Allah presiding over a community of spirits. Communal faith, involving all members of the tribe and had no priesthood. Supreme deity was symbolized by a sacred stone.
Ka'aba
Time of Muhammad, this place held a massive black meteorite in Mecca
Why did the economic importance of the Arabian peninsula increase in the fifth and sixth centuries?
Because of political disorder in Mesopotamia (a consequence of the constant wars between the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) and Sassanian Persian Empires and in Egypt) trade routes that ran directly across the peninsula or down the Red Sea became dangerous, so
Muhammad
Almost no evidence that he actually lived. His spiritual visions unified the Arab world with great speed. He was the last great prophet of Allah. Born in Mecca and orphaned at six (570-632). Grew up to become a caravan manager and married a rich widow, Kh
Qur'an (Koran)
Contained the rules/guidelines of Islam including the Five Pillars of Islam. Muhammad's revelations written down
Hadith
Testimonials about Muhammad's life, written by his followers
When Muhammad began preaching his revelations to residents of Mecca, what did they think of him?
Residents of Mecca believed that Muhammad was a charlatan, or a madman. Others were concerned that his vigorous attacks on traditional beliefs and the corrupt society around him might severely shake the social and political order. 3 years of preaching, an
Hegira
Perhaps discouraged, Muhammad made this trip to Yathrib, later named Medina in 622. Marks the first date on the official calendar of Islam.
Medina
Here Muhammad was successful in converting citizens to Islam. Was previously Yathrib until Muhammad's flight there, or the Hegira. Muhammad won over many residents of the city and many Bedouins in the surrounding countryside.
umma
Name of the Muslim community as a whole
What did Muhammad do in 630 when he came back to Mecca from newly named Medina?
He came back from Medina, with quite the military force. He conquered Mecca and converted the town to Islam. He also visited the Ka'aba where he destroyed the idols of the traditional faith and declared it a sacred shrine of Islam.
ulama
a panel of Muslim scholars who drew up a law code, called the Shari'a
Shari'a
provided Muslims with a set of prescriptions to regulate their daily lives
Abu Bakr
Muhammad's father-in-law. Was chosen by Muhammad's closest followers to be a successor because Muhammad saw no separation between political and religious authority
Caliph
successor. Temporal leader of the Islamic community and was also considered to be an imam
Imam
An Islamic religious leader. Some traditions say there is only one per generation; others use the term more broadly
razzia
a strategy used by Muhammad in the struggle against his enemies. His successors also used the same strategy to expand the authority of the movement
jihad
a word used to describe the process of the expansion of Islam. Appears in the Qur'an multiple times, and has many translations.
How did Arabs react once unified under Abu Bakr?
Arabs used the energy formerly directed against each other to conquer neighboring peoples. For example, they took over the Byzantine and Sassanian Empires because they were already weakened. They expanded their empire to Spain and to the edges of India
What accounts for the rapid expansion of the Arabs after the rise of Islam?
-prolonged drought on the Arabian peninsula to the desire of Islam's leaders to channel the energies of their new converts (hypothesis)
-expansion was deliberately planned by ruling elites in Mecca to extend trade (hypothesis)
-Islam's ability to unify th
What was the administration like by the end of the 7th century?
Once army had prevailed, the Arab administration was tolerant. Due to shortage of trained ARab administrators, government was left to local officials. Conversion to Islam was voluntary. Those who didn't convert had to submit to Muslim rule and pay a head
What was the main challenge in the growing empire?
Some of Muhammad's followers had not agreed with the selection of Abu Bakr as first caliph
Ali
Muslims who did not support Abu Bakr supported for Muhammad's cousin and son in law, as the alternative. Took over in 656 when Uthman dies, and was accused of being involved with the assassination of Uthman. But then he is assassinated in 661
Umar
When Abu Bakr dies, the office passes to this man, another one of Muhammad's followers
Uthman
Office passed to this man after Umar. Was assassinated in 656.
Mu'awiya
Takes over after Ali in 661. He was the governor of Syria and one of Ali's chief rivals. He made the caliphate hereditary to his own family, and called it the Umayyads
Umayyads
A branch of the Quraishi clan. During this dynasty, the capital of the Arab Empire was moved to Damascus where it remained in power for nearly a century
Did factional struggle effect Arab expansion at the beginning of the eighth century?
No, new attacks were launched on the east and the west frontiers of the Mediterranean world. Arabs conquered North Africa and the Berbers, pastoral people living along the Mediterranean coast. With the help of Berbers, the army under general Tariq took ov
Hussein
This person contributed to the factional disputes that continued to plague the Umayyad empire. HE argued the legitimacy of the Umayyads and incited his supporters, which became the Shi'ites, to rise up against the Umayyad rule in 680. He was killed in bat
Sunni
Orthodox Muslims. Make up the majority of the Muslim. Was a split over the disagreement on who would succeed Muhammad
What led to the fall of the Umayyads?
Ummayad rule created resentment all over the empire. Critics say that the actions of the caliphs were not up to par. They were rich and becoming aristocrats and not doing any good to the society. in 750, a revolt led by Abu al-Abbas (descendent of Muhamma
Was the economy and society stable throughout the Abbasid caliphs?
The Abbasid dynasty was thought to be of a golden age. The Abbasid caliphs brought political, economic, and cultural change to the world of Islam.
What did the Abbasid caliphs do that benefited the empire?
They sought to implant their own version of religious orthodoxy. The also tried to break down the distinctions between Arab and non-Arab Muslims. All Muslims were allowed to hold both civil and military offices. Arabs and non-Arabs were intermingling. Mus
Harun al-Rashid
(786-809) Harun "the Upright". His reign is described as the golden age of the Abbasid caliphate.
al-Ma'mun
Son of Harun al-Rashid who founded an astronomical observatory and established a foundation for translating Classical Greek works.
Describe the growing economic prosperity of the Abbasid empire.
Arabs had conquered many of the richest provinces of the Roman Empire and controlled empires to the east. Baghdad became an enormous commercial market extending into Europe, Central Asia and Africa. Paper was introduced from China. Trade was huge.
How did the political power shift and change under the Abbasids?
Under the Abbasids, caliphs became more regal, more like kings than spiritual leaders. Also, the bureaucracy assisting the caliph grew more complex. The council, called a diwan was headed by a prime minister known as a vizier. Some people credit the Persi
vizier
prime minister that headed the council/bureaucracy that advised the caliph in the Abbasid dynasty.
al-Mas'udi
described the disputes over succession and lack of spiritual authority causing instability during the Abbasid empire. He was a historian in the 10th century
What led to the fall of the Abbasids?
Lack of spiritual authority caused disputes over succession and gave way to potential rivals. At Harun's death, his two sons Amin and Al-Ma'mun fought creating a civil war leading to the destruction of Baghdad. Also wealth was a problem. The most importan
Great Mosque of Samarra
Largest mosque in the Islamic world; ninth-century
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Seljuk Turks
Eleventh century, the Abbasid caliphate faced these nomadic people from Central Asia who had converted to Islam and flourished as military mercenaries for the Abbasid caliphate. They moved gradually into Persia and Armenia as the Abbasids weakened. in 105
What caused the Crusades to be sent to the Middle East?
When the Turks had taken control, the exerted military pressure on Egypt and the Byzantine Empire. IN 1071, Byzantine challenged the Turks and the Byzantine lost which allowed the Turks to take over more of the Anatolian peninsula. So the Byzantine (Alexi
Crusades
in the Middle Ages (11th century), a military campaign in defense of the Christendom
Ottoman Empire
Began to be established after the Seljuks in northwestern part of Anatolia towards 15th century
What did Europeans think of the Seljuk Turks?
The Europeans found them barbaric and disaster although Turkish rule in the Middle East was beneficial.
Consequences of the Seljuk domination
Seljuk domination over the old Abbasid Empire provoked resentment from Persian Shi'ites, who viewed the Turks as usurping foreigners who betrayed the true faith of Islam.
Hasan al-Sabahh
a Cairo-trained Persian who formed a rebel group known as the assassins who for several decades terrorized government officials and other leading political and religious figures. This organization was eliminated by the invading Mongols in 13th century.
Consequences of the Crusades
When the Crusades came, starting in 1096, the Mediterranean coast from Antioch to Sinai peninsula was under Christian rule. At first Muslim rulers were surprised, but when they tried to attack back, they didn't do much damage.
Saladin
In 1169, Sunni Muslims gathered under the leadership of this man who was a vizier to the last Fatimid caliph and brought down the Fatimid dynasty. He proclaimed himself sultan and in 1187, his army invaded Jerusalem and destroyed the Christian forces ther
Genghis Khan
His Mongol armies spread across Central Asia
Hulegu & Kubilai Khan
seized Persia and Mesopotamia ending the caliphate at Baghdad
Mongols
were not Muslims and did not easily assimilate into the major cities in the Middle east. They treated local population in conquered territories terribly and destroyed a lot. Eventually, the rulers began to assimilate by converting to Islam, By 14th centur
Mamluks
a Turkish military class that overthrew Saladin administration and seized power. This group stopped the Mongols from advancing past the Red Sea
Abd al-Rathman
after the fall of the Umayyad dynasty, he escaped Damascus and made his way to Spain where he replaced the Visigoths. By 756, he had legitimized his authority in Spain and named himself emir
emir
commander
Cordoba
capital in Spain
Andalusia
Because of Abd al-Rathman's action, this place's rulers established a new caliphate in 929. They captured Crete, Sardinia, Sicily and the Balearic Islands. This place was also an artistic and intellectual center. Here, there was an ATMOSPHERE of tolerance
convivencia
provided an environment in which many Christians and Jews were able to maintain their religious beliefs and even obtain favors from the court
What led to the fall of the Andalusia empire?
Factionalism in the emirate. In 1009 the royal palace was destroyed in civil war and the caliphate disappeared. AFter, Christian kingdoms were able to establish themselves in the north of the Iberian peninsula.
Almoravids
Because so many Christians had taken over the Iberian peninsula, Seville called on this group of people to help halt the Christian advance. These people brought an end to the religious era and intellectual achievement. Even with their presence, the Muslim
Alhambra in Granada
Islamic civilization with a fourteenth century castle. Showed cooling water and reflecting pools...accessories of luxury. This building showed the desires of Muslims through the architecture
Moorish Spain
Muslims in Spain. Historians argue weather this era was "culturally tolerant".
Reconquista
Term used to describe the "reconquest" of southern Spain by the Christian kingdoms
Spanish Inquisition
when the Catholic Church persecuted Muslims, Jews and Christian heretics for refusing to accept true faith
Arabic
in eighth and ninth centuries, numerous ancient scientific and philosophical works were translated into Arabic.
house of wisdom
Where numerous ancient texts were kept translated into Arabic. Was in Baghdad. Process began in sixth century. when Byzantine ruler Justinian shut down the Platonic Academy in Athens. Those scholars fled to BAghdad where their ideas and texts they brought
Ibn Sina
physician and intellectual known in the West as Avicenna. Wrote philosophy and wrote how the world operated not only on the will of Allah, but also by its own natural laws. Also compiled a medical encyclopedia.
Averroes(Ibn Rushd) and Maimonides
translated works themselves and supported Avicenna's defense of the role of human reason
poetry
based on memory, but then in fourth century, it was written.
Book of Kings
ten volume epic poem by Ferdowzi (940-1020)
Rubaiyat
Omar Khayyam wrote this. Combined poetry with scientific works
Tales from the 1001 Nights
popular work for the west.
Sadi
considered the Persian Shakespeare
Sufism
a mystical school of Islam, noted for its music, dance, and poetry, which became prominent in about the thirteenth century.
qibla
wall facing the holy city of Mecca
mihrab
a niche in the qibla containing decorated panel pointing to Mecca and representing Allah.
spinning and weaving
primary occupation of women to make cloth and clothing, especially weaving rugs. young girls could do this
paintings of Muhammad
there are no paintings of Muhammad because he didn't want people worshipping him