Buzurg ibn Shahriyar

Buzurg ibn Shahriyar was a tenth-century shipmaster from Siraf, a prosperous and bustling
port city on the Persian Gulf coast. He probably sailed frequently to Arabia and India, and he
may have ventured also to Malaya, the islands of southeast Asia, China

Buzurg's collection included a generous proportion of tall tales, what were they?

Buzurg's collection included a generous proportion of tall tales. He told of a giant lobster
that seized a ship's anchor and dragged the vessel through the water, of mermaids and sea
dragons, of creatures born from human fathers and fish mothers who lived

Several of Buzurg's stories tempted readers with visions of

Several of Buzurg's stories tempted readers with visions of vast wealth attainable through
maritime trade. Buzurg mentioned fine diamonds from Kashmir, pearls from Ceylon, and a
Jewish merchant who left Persia penniless and returned from India and China w

Just as China served as the principal inspiration of a larger east Asian society in the post-
classical era,

Just as China served as the principal inspiration of a larger east Asian society in the post-
classical era, India influenced the development of a larger cultural zone in south and south-
east Asia. Yet China and India played different roles in their resp

Though politically disunited, India remained a

Though politically disunited, India remained a coherent and distinct society as a result of
powerful social and cultural traditions: the caste system and the Hindu religion shaped human experiences and values throughout the subcontinent during the postcla

Beyond the subcontinent Indian traditions helped to shape a larger

Beyond the subcontinent Indian traditions helped to shape a larger cultural zone extending
to the mainland and islands of southeast Asia. Throughout most of the region, ruling classes
adopted Indian forms of political organization and Indian techniques of

While Indian traditions influenced the political and cultural development of southeast Asia,

While Indian traditions influenced the political and cultural development of southeast Asia,
the entire Indian Ocean basin began to move toward economic integration during the post-
classical era, as Buzurg ibn Shahriyar's stories suggest. Lands on the ri

Like the Han and Roman empires, the Gupta dynasty came under severe pressure
from

Like the Han and Roman empires, the Gupta dynasty came under severe pressure
from nomadic invaders. From the mid-fourth to the mid-fifth century C.E., Gupta
rulers resisted the pressures and preserved order throughout much of the Indian sub-
continent. Be

Northern and southern India followed different political trajectories after the fall of
the Gupta empire.

Northern and southern India followed different political trajectories after the fall of
the Gupta empire. In the north, politics became turbulent and almost chaotic. Local
states contested for power and territory, and northern India became a region of con

Even after the collapse of the Gupta dynasty,

Even after the collapse of the Gupta dynasty, the ideal of centralized imperial rule
did not entirely disappear. During the first half of the seventh century, King Harsha
(reigned 606-648 C.E.) temporarily restored unified rule in most of northern India
a

Harsha enjoyed a reputation for

Harsha enjoyed a reputation for piety, liberality, and even scholarship. He was him-
self a Buddhist, but he looked kindly on other faiths as well. He built hospitals and
provided free medical care for his subjects. The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang lived in
n

Despite his energy and his favorable reputation,

Despite his energy and his favorable reputation, Harsha was unable to restore per-
manent centralized rule. Since the fall of the Gupta dynasty, local rulers had estab-
lished their authority too securely in India's regions for Harsha to overcome them.
Ha

Amid nomadic incursions and contests for power, northern India also experienced the
arrival of

Amid nomadic incursions and contests for power, northern India also experienced the
arrival of Islam and the establishment of Islamic states. Islam reached India by several
routes. One was military: Arab forces entered India as early as the mid-seventh ce

Sind stood on the fringe of the Islamic world, well beyond the effective authority
of the

Sind stood on the fringe of the Islamic world, well beyond the effective authority
of the Abbasid caliphs. Much of its population remained Hindu, Buddhist, or Parsee,
and it also sheltered a series of unorthodox Islamic movements. Infighting between
Arab

While conquerors brought Islam to Sind, Muslim merchants took their faith to

While conquerors brought Islam to Sind, Muslim merchants took their faith to
coastal regions in both northern and southern India. Arab and Persian mariners had
visited Indian ports for centuries before Muhammad, and their Muslim descendants
dominated trad

Islam also entered India by a third route:

Islam also entered India by a third route: the migrations and invasions of
Turkish-speaking peoples from central Asia. During the tenth century, several Turk-
ish groups had become acquainted with Islam through their dealings with the Ab-
basid caliphate

Mahmud of Ghazni

Mahmud of Ghazni, leader of the Turks in Afghanistan, soon turned his attention
to the rich land to the south. Between 1001 and 1027 he mounted seventeen raiding
expeditions into India. Taking advantage of infighting between local rulers, he an-
nexed sev

During the late twelfth century, Mahmud's successors mounted a more system-
atic campaign to conquer northern India and place it under Islamic rule.

By the early thirteenth century, they had conquered most of the Hindu kingdoms in northern
India and established an Islamic state known as the sultanate of Delhi. The sultans
established their capital at Delhi, a strategic site controlling access from the

Army of the sultans of Delhi

During the fourteenth century the sultans of Delhi commanded an army of three
hundred thousand, and their state ranked among the most powerful in the Islamic
world. Yet for the most part, the authority of the sultans did not extend far beyond
Delhi. They

Although it too remained politically divided, the southern part of the Indian subcontinent

Although it too remained politically divided, the southern part of the Indian subcon-
tinent largely escaped the invasions, chronic war, and turmoil that troubled the north.
Most Hindu rulers in the south presided over small, loosely administered states.

Although many regional states organized affairs in local jurisdictions, two kingdoms expanded enough to exercise at least nominal rule over much of southern India. The first was

The first was the Chola kingdom, situated in the deep south, which ruled the Coro-
mandel coast for more than four centuries, from 850 to 1267 C.E. At its high point,
during the eleventh century, Chola forces conquered Ceylon and parts of southeast
Asia.

Chola kingdom?

Chola rulers did not build a tightly centralized state: they allowed considerable au-
tonomy for local and village institutions as long as they maintained order and delivered
tax revenues on time. Chola rulers had less interest in building a powerful stat

Although many regional states organized affairs in local jurisdictions, two kingdoms expanded enough to exercise at least nominal rule over much of southern India. The second was

The second state that dominated much of southern India was the kingdom of Vi-
jayanagar, based in the northern Deccan. The kingdom owed its origin to efforts by
the sultans of Delhi to extend their authority to southern India. Exploratory forays by
Turkis

Political division and conflict in northern India

As in northern India, then, political division and conflict between states character-
ized southern India's political history in postclassical times. India did not generate the sort of large-scale, centralized, imperial state that guided the fortunes of p

As in the Mediterranean, southwest Asia, and China, agricultural yields increased sig-
nificantly in postclassical India, enabling large numbers of people to devote themselves to

trade and manufacturing rather than the production of food. Trade forged links be-
tween the various regions of the subcontinent and fostered economic development in
southern India. Trade also created links between India and distant lands, as merchants
an

Because of the rhythms of the monsoons, irrigation was essential for the maintenance
of

a large, densely populated, agricultural society. During the spring and summer,
warm, moisture-laden winds from the southwest bring most of India's rainfall. Dur-
ing the autumn and winter, cool and very dry winds blow from the northeast. To
achieve their

In northern India, irrigation had been a fixture of the countryside since

Harappan
times, when cultivators tapped the waters of the Indus River. Later, as Aryans migrated
into the Ganges River valley, they found plentiful surface water and abundant opportuni-
ties to build irrigation systems. For the most part, however, souther

As a result of that increased productivity, India's population

grew steadily through-
out the postclassical era. In 600 C.E., shortly after the fall of the Gupta dynasty, the
subcontinent's population stood at about 53 million. By 800 it had increased almost
20 percent to 64 million, and by 1000 it had grown by almos

This demographic surge (population increase) encouraged the concentration of

people in cities. During
the fourteenth century, the high point of the sultanate of Delhi, the capital city had a
population of about four hundred thousand, which made it second only to Cairo
among Muslim cities. Many other cities�particularly ports and t

Political fragmentation of the subcontinent did not prevent robust trade between

the different states and regions of India. As the population grew, opportunities for special-
ized work became more numerous. Increased trade was a natural result of that process.

Most regions of the Indian subcontinent were

self-sufficient in staple foods such as
rice, wheat, barley, and millet. The case was different, however, with iron, copper, salt,
pepper, spices, condiments, and specialized crops that grew well only in certain re-
gions. Iron came mostly from the Ganges

Southern India and Ceylon benefited especially handsomely from this trade.

As in-
vasions and conflicts disrupted northern India, southern regions experienced rapid
economic development. The Chola kingdom provided relative stability in the south,
and Chola expansion in southeast Asia opened markets for Indian merchants and pro-

The Chola rulers allowed considerable autonomy to their subjects, and the towns
and villages of southern India largely organized their own affairs. Public life revolved
around

Hindu temples that served as economic and social centers. Southern Indians
used their growing wealth to build hundreds of elaborate Hindu temples, which or-
ganized agricultural activities, coordinated work on irrigation systems, and maintained
reserves o

Temple authorities also served as

Temple authorities also served as bankers, made loans, and invested in commer-
cial and business ventures. As a result, temples promoted the economic development
of southern India by encouraging production and trade. Temple authorities cooper-
ated closel

Indian prosperity sprang partly from the productivity of Indian society, but it depended
also on the vast wealth that circulated in the

Indian prosperity sprang partly from the productivity of Indian society, but it depended
also on the vast wealth that circulated in the commercial world of the Indian Ocean
basin. Trade in the Indian Ocean was not new in postclassical times: Indian mercha

The earliest voyaging in the Indian Ocean followed the coastlines, but already in
classical times mariners recognized the rhythms of the

monsoons. Over time they built larger ships, which enabled them to leave the coasts behind and ply the blue wa-
ters of the Indian Ocean: the dhows favored by Indian, Persian, and Arab sailors aver-
aged about one hundred tons burden in 1000 and four hund

As large, stable ships came into use, mariners increasingly

entrusted their crafts
and cargoes to the reasonably predictable monsoons and sailed directly across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. In the age of sail, it was impossible to make a
round trip across the entire Indian Ocean without spending months a

Because India stood in the middle of the Indian Ocean basin,

it was a natural site
for emporia (commerce) and warehouses. Merchants coming from east Africa or Persia exchanged
their cargoes at Cambay, Calicut, or Quilon for goods to take back west with the win-
ter monsoon. Mariners from China or southeast Asia cal

Trade in the Indian Ocean surged after

Particularly after the establishment of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties in
southwest Asia and the Tang and Song dynasties in China, trade in the Indian Ocean surged. Indian merchants and mariners sometimes traveled to distant lands in search
of marketab

As the volume of trade in the Indian Ocean basin increased, lands around the
ocean began to engage in

specialized production of commodities for the commercial
market. For centuries Indian artisans had enjoyed a reputation for the manufacture of
fine cotton textiles, which they produced in small quantities for wealthy consumers.
In postclassical times thei

Alongside textiles, other specialized industries that emerged in postclassical India
included

sugar refining, leather tanning, stone carving, and carpet weaving. Iron and
steel production also emerged as prominent industries. Indian artisans became well
known especially for the production of high-carbon steel, which held a lethal cutting
edge and

The experience of the kingdom of Axum (sometimes spelled Aksum) well illus-
trates the potential of trade to

support political as well as economic development.
Founded in the highlands of northern Ethiopia about the first century C.E., Axum was
originally a small kingdom whose merchants traded from the port of Adulis on the
Red Sea. Axum soon displaced Kush as E

During the seventh and eighth centuries, Arab conquerors sought to

bring Axum
into the expanding realm of Islam, but the kingdom maintained its independence
and its Christian religion. Because neighboring lands mostly adopted Islam, Axum
fell out of communication with other Christian societies. Nevertheless, Axumite mer-

The political, economic, and social changes of the postclassical era brought a series of
challenges for

India's caste system. Migrations, the growing prominence of Islam,
economic development, and urbanization all placed pressures on the caste system as it had developed during the Vedic and classical eras. But the caste system has never been
a rigid, unchan

The caste system closely reflected changes in

Indian society. It adapted to the ar-
rival of migrants, for example, and helped to integrate them into Indian society. As
Turkish peoples or Muslim merchants pursued opportunities in India, they gained
recognition as distinct groups under the umbrella of

True or false: The caste system also accommodated the social changes brought about by trade
and economic development.

True! Indeed, the caste system influenced the lives of most
people by helping to order their work and their relationships with other workers. The
castes that individuals most closely identified with were the subcastes (jati), which
often took the form of

Besides becoming more complex, the caste system also

extended its geographic
reach. Caste distinctions first became prominent in northern India following Aryan
migrations into the subcontinent. During the postclassical era, the caste system be-
came securely established in southern India as well. Economic d

The Indian cultural landscape underwent a thorough transformation during the

post-classical era. Jainism and Buddhism lost much of their popular following. Neither
belief completely disappeared from India, and indeed, a small community continues to
observe each faith there even today. After 1000 C.E., however, Hindu and Islamic tr

Hinduism and Islam differed profoundly as religious traditions how?

The Hindu pan-
theon made places for numerous gods and spirits, for example, whereas Islamic the-ology stood on the foundation of a firm and uncompromising monotheism. Yet both
religions attracted large popular followings throughout the subcontinent, with

Toward the end of the first millennium C.E., Buddhism flourished in east Asia, central Asia, and parts of southeast Asia but came under great pressure in

India. Like Ma-
hayana Buddhism, both Hinduism and Islam promised salvation to devout individuals,
and they gradually attracted Buddhists to their own communities. Invasions of India
by Turkish peoples hastened the decline of Buddhism because the invaders

Hinduism benefited from the decline of

Buddhism. One reason for the increasing popularity of Hinduism was the remarkable growth of devotional cults, particularly those dedicated to Vishnu and Shiva, two of the most im- portant deities in the Hindu pantheon. Vishnu was the pre- server of the wo

Hindus embraced the new cults warmly because

they promised salvation. De- votional cults became espe- cially popular in southern India, where individuals or family groups went to great lengths to honor their cho- sen deities. Often cults orig- inated when individuals iden- tified Vishnu or Shiva wit

The famous cult of Shiva

The famous cult of Shiva as lord of the dancers arose, for example, about the fifth or sixth century C.E. when devotees identified a stone long venerated locally in a southern Indian village as a symbol of Shiva. In the tenth century Chola kings took the

The significance of Hinduism extended well beyond popular religion how?

The significance of Hinduism extended well beyond popular religion: it also influ-
enced philosophy. Just as Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam influenced moral thought
and philosophy in other lands, devotional Hinduism guided the efforts of the most
promi

Ramanuja, a devotee of Vishnu who was active during the eleventh and early twelfth centuries C.E., challenged Shankara's uncompromising insistence on

logic. Also a brahmin philosopher from southern India, Ramanuja's thought reflected the deep influence of devotional cults. According to Ramanuja, intellectual understand- ing of ultimate reality was less important than personal union with the deity. Ra-

The Islamic faith did not attract much immediate interest among

Indians when it ar- rived in the subcontinent. It won gradual acceptance in merchant communities where foreign Muslim traders took local spouses and found a place in Indian society. Else- where, however, circumstances did not favor its adoption, since it

Did Indians convert to Islam?

Gradually, however, many Indians converted to Islam. By 1500 C.E. Indian Mus- lims numbered perhaps twenty-five million�about one-quarter of the subcontinent's population. Some Indians adopted Islam in hopes of improving their positions in so- ciety: Hind

In India as elsewhere, the most effective agents of conversion to Islam were

Sufi mystics. Sufis encouraged a personal, emotional, devotional approach to Islam. They did not insist on fine points of doctrine, and they sometimes even permitted their followers to observe rituals or venerate spirits not recognized by the Islamic fait

In some ways the gap between Hinduism and Islam narrowed in postclassical India because

both religions drew on long-established and long-observed cultural traditions. Sufis, for example, often attracted schools of followers in the manner of Indian gurus, spiritual leaders who taught Hindu values to disciples who congre- gated around them. Ev

The bhakti movement gradually rejected the exclusive features of both

Hinduism and Islam. Thus guru Kabir (1440-1518), a blind weaver who was one of the most fa- mous bhakti teachers, went so far as to teach that Shiva, Vishnu, and Allah were all manifestations of a single, universal deity, whom all devout believers could f

Just as China stood at the center of a larger east Asian society, India served as the

prin- cipal source of political and cultural traditions widely observed throughout south and southeast Asia. For a millennium and more, southeast Asian peoples adapted Indian political structures and religions to local needs and interests. Although Indian

Indian merchants visited the islands and mainland of southeast Asia from an early date or after a while?

Indian merchants visited the islands and mainland of southeast Asia from an early date,
perhaps as early as 500 B.C.E. By the early centuries C.E., they had become familiar fig-
ures throughout southeast Asia, and their presence brought opportunities for

Meanwhile, southeast Asian ruling elites became acquainted with

Meanwhile, southeast Asian ruling elites became acquainted with Indian political and cultural traditions. Without necessarily giving up their own traditions, they bor- rowed Indian forms of political organization and accepted Indian religious faiths. On t

Ruling elites also sponsored the introduction of

Ruling elites also sponsored the introduction of Hinduism or Buddhism�some-
times both�into their courts. They embraced Indian literature like the Ramayana
and the Mahabharata, which promoted Hindu values, as well as treatises that ex-
plained Buddhist vi

How did Funan reflet Indian influence?

The first state known to have reflected Indian influence in this fashion was Funan,
which dominated the lower reaches of the Mekong River (including parts of modern
Cambodia and Vietnam) between the first and the sixth centuries C.E. The rulers of
Funan c

Did trade with India become an increasingly important part of Funan's economy?

As trade with India became an increasingly important part of Funan's economy,
the ruling classes adopted Indian political, cultural, and religious traditions. They
took the Sanskrit term raja ("king") for themselves and claimed divine sanction for
their r

During the sixth century C.E., what weakened Funan internally?

During the sixth century C.E., a bitter power struggle weakened Funan internally.
Peoples from the north took advantage of that weakness, migrated to the lower Me-
kong valley in large numbers, and overwhelmed Funan. Chams settled in the south-
ern portio

After the fall of Funan, political leadership in southeast Asia passed to

After the fall of Funan, political leadership in southeast Asia passed to the king-
dom of Srivijaya (670-1025 C.E.) based on the island of Sumatra. The kings of Srivi-
jaya built a powerful navy and controlled commerce in southeast Asian waters. They
com

With the decline of Srivijaya, the kingdoms of Angkor (889-1431 C.E.), Singosari (1222-1292 C.E.), and Majapahit (1293-1520 C.E.) dominated affairs in

With the decline of Srivijaya, the kingdoms of Angkor (889-1431 C.E.), Singosari (1222-1292 C.E.), and Majapahit (1293-1520 C.E.) dominated affairs in southeast Asia. Many differences characterized these states. Funan had its base of operations in the Mek

The magnificent monuments of Angkor testify eloquently to the influence of

The magnificent monuments of Angkor testify eloquently to the influence of In- dian traditions in southeast Asia. Beginning in the ninth century, kings of the Khmers began to build a capital city at Angkor Thom. With the aid of brahmin advisors from India

As the Khmers turned to Buddhism during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, they added

As the Khmers turned to Buddhism during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, they added Buddhist temples to the complex, though without removing the earlier structures inspired by Hinduism. The entire complex formed a square with sides of about three kil

The Khmers abandoned Angkor in 1431 after

The Khmers abandoned Angkor in 1431 after Thai peoples invaded the capital and left much of it in ruins. Soon the jungle reclaimed both Angkor Thom and Ang- kor Wat, which remained largely forgotten until French missionaries and explorers rediscovered the

Muslim merchants had ventured into southeast Asia by the eighth century, but only
during the

Muslim merchants had ventured into southeast Asia by the eighth century, but only
during the tenth century did they become prominent in the region. Some came from
southern Arabia or Persia, but many were Indians from Gujarat or the port cities of
southern

For several centuries Islam maintained a

For several centuries Islam maintained a quiet presence in southeast Asia. Small
communities of foreign merchants observed their faith in the port cities of the re-
gion but attracted little interest on the part of the native inhabitants. Gradually, how-

Like Hinduism and Buddhism, Islam did not enter southeast Asia as an

exclusive faith. Ruling elites who converted to Islam often continued to honor Hindu, Bud-
dhist, or native southeast Asian traditions. They adopted Islam less as an exclusive and
absolute creed than as a faith that facilitated their dealings with foreign

During the fifteenth century the spread of Islam gained momentum in southeast
Asia, largely because the powerful state of

During the fifteenth century the spread of Islam gained momentum in southeast
Asia, largely because the powerful state of Melaka sponsored the faith throughout the
region. Founded during the late fourteenth century by Paramesvara, a rebellious prince
from

How did Melaka differ from earlier states?

In one respect, though, Melaka differed significantly from the earlier states. Al-
though it began as a Hindu state, Melaka soon became predominantly Islamic. About
the mid-fifteenth century the Melakan ruling class converted to Islam. It welcomed
theolog

Thus, within several centuries of its arrival, Islam was a prominent feature in the

Thus, within several centuries of its arrival, Islam was a prominent feature in the
cultural landscape of southeast Asia. Along with Hinduism and Buddhism, Islam
helped link southeast Asian lands to the larger cultural world of India and to the
larger com

With respect to political organization, India differed from postclassical societies in China, southwest Asia, and the eastern Mediterranean basin how?

India did not ex-
perience a return of centralized imperial rule such as that provided by the Tang and Song
dynasties, the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties, and the Byzantine empire. In other re-
spects, however, India's development was similar to that of ot