public opinion
citizen's views on politics and government action
liberal or conservative ideology
a way of describing political beliefs in terms of position on the spectrum running from liberal to moderate to conservative
latent opinion
an opinion formed on the spot, when it is needed (as distinct from a deeply held opinion that is stable over time)
political socialization
the process by which an individual's political opinions are shaped by other people and the surrounding culture
mass survery
a way to measure public opinion by interviewing a large sample of the population
population
the group of people that a researcher or pollster wants to study, such as evangelicals, senior citizens, or Americans
sample
within a population, the group of people surveyed in order to gauge the whole population's opinion. Researchers use samples because it would be impossible to interview the entire population
sampling error
a calculation that describes what percentage of people surveyed may not accurately represent the population being studied; increasing the number of respondents lowers the sampling error
random sample
subsection of the population chosen to participate in a survey through a selection process in which every member of the population have an equal chance of being chosen; this kind of sampling improves the accuracy of public opinion data
push polls
campaign uses manipulative survey questions as a way of driving support away from a opponent
ideological polarization
Effect on public opinion when many citizens move away from moderate positions and toward either end of the political spectrum, identifying themselves as either liberals or conservatives
policy mood
the level of public support for expanding the government's role in society, whether the public wants government action of a specific issue
political culture
widely shared beliefs, values, and norms concerning the relationship of citizens to government and one another
reinforcing cleavages
divisions within society that reinforce one another, making groups more homogenous
cross-cutting cleavages
division within society that make groups more heterogenous
political predisposition
a characteristic of individuals that is predictive of political behavior
political efficacy
a citizens capacity to understand and influence political events
internal efficacy
ability to understand and take part in political affairs
external efficacy
ability to make the system respond to citizenry
mass media
sources that provide information to the average citizen, such as newspapers, television networks, radio stations, podcasts, and websites
wire service
an organization that gathers news and sells it to other media outlets. The invention of the telegraph in the early 1800s made this type of service possible.
yellow journalism
a style of newspaper popular in the late 1800s that featured sensationalized stories, bold headlines, and illustrations to increase readership
investigative journalists
reporters who dig deeply into particular topic of public concern, often targeting government failures and inefficiencies
Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
A government agency created in 1934 to regulate American radio stations and later expanded to regulate television, wireless communications technologies, and other broadcast media
broadcast media
communications technologies, such as television and radio, that transmits information over airwaves
fairness doctrine
an FCC regulation requiring broadcast media to present several points of view to ensure balanced coverage. It was created in the late 1940s and eliminated in 1987
equal time provision
an FCC regulation requiring broadcast media to provide equal airtime on any non-news programming to all candidates running for an office
media conglomerates
companies that control a large number of media sources across several types of media outlets
news cycle
the time between the release of information and its publication, such as the 24 hours between issues of a daily newspaper
on background or off the record
comments a politician makes to the press on the condition that they can be reported only if they are not attributed to that politician
concentration
involves one company owning more than one media source in a town or community
cross-ownership
one company owning several different kinds of media outlets often in the same community
mainstream media
traditional forms of mass communication
by-product theory
the idea that many Americans acquire political information unintentionally or rather than by seeking it out
media effects
the influence of media coverage on average citizens' opinions and actions
shield laws
allow reporters to refuse to name their sources
filtering
the influence on public opinion that results from journalists' and editors' decisions about which of many potential news stories to report
slant
the imbalance in a story that covers one candidate or policy favorably without providing similar coverage of the other side
priming
the influence on the public's general impressions caused by positive or negative coverage of a candidate or an issue
framing
the influence on public opinion caused by the way a story is presented or covered, including the details, explanations, and context offered in the report
attack journalism
a type of increasingly popular media coverage focused on political scandals and controversies, which causes a negative public opinion of political figures
horse race
a description of the type of election coverage that focuses more on poll results and speculation about a likely winner than on substantive differences between the candidates
soft news
media coverage that aims to entertain or shock, often through sensationalized reporting or by focusing on a candidate or politician's personality
hard news
media coverage focused on facts and important issues surrounding a campaign
narrowcasting
dissemination of info to a narrow audience not the broader public at large
hyperlocalism
news coverage of very local events to the exclusion of more important news events
linkage institutions
channels through which issues and policy preferences get on governments policy agenda
selective exposure
the process by which individuals screen out those messages that do not conform to own biases
selective perception
process by which individuals perceive what they want in media messages and disregard the rest
party organization
a specific political party's leaders and workers at the national, state, and local levels
party in government
the group of officeholders who belong to a specific political party and were elected as candidates of that party
party in the electorate
the group of citizens who identify with a specific political party
party system
periods in which the names of the major political parties, their supporters, and the issues dividing them have remained relatively stable
party principle
the idea that a political party exists as an organization distinct from its elected officials or party leaders
spoils system
the practice of rewarding party supporters with benefits like federal government positions
political machine
an unofficial patronage system within a political party that seeks to gain political power and government contracts, jobs, and other benefits for party leaders, workers, and supports
realignment
a change in the size or composition of the party coalitions or in the nature of the issues that divide the parties. Realignments typically occur within an election cycle or two, but they can also occur gradually over the course of a decade or longer
national committee
an American political party's principal organization, comprising party representatives from each state
political action committee (PAC)
an interest group of division of an interest group that can raise money to contribute to campaigns or to spend on as in support of candidates. The amount a PAC can receive from each of its donors and the amount it can spend on federal electioneering are s
527 organizations
a tax-empt group formed primarily to influence elections through voter mobilization efforts and issue ads that don't directly endorse or oppose a candidate. Unlike PACs, they aren't subject to contribution limits and spending caps
primary election
ballot vote in which citizens select party nominee for the general election
caucus (congressional)
the organization of Democrats within the House and Senate that meets to discuss and debate the party's positions on various issues in order to reach a consensus and to assign leadership positions
conference
the organization of Republicans within the House and Senate that meets to discuss and debate the party's positions on various issues in order to reach a consensus and to assign leadership positions
party identification (party ID)
a citizen's loyalty to a specific political party
closed primary
only registered party members can vote in their party's primary
open primary
any registered voter can participate in either party's primary regardless of voters party affiliation
nonpartisan primary
candidates from both parties are listed on same primary ballot
semi-closed primary
voters registered as party members must vote in their party's primary but registered voters can vote either party
party coaltions
the groups that identify with a political party, usually described in demographic terms such as African American Democrats or evangelical Republicans
caucus (electoral)
a local meeting in which party members select a party's nominee for the general election
nominating convention
a meeting held by each party every four years at which states' delegates select the party's presidential and vice-presidential nominees and approve the party platform
party platform
a set of objectives outlining the party's issue positions and priorities. Candidates aren't required to support their party's platform
unified government
situation in which one party holds majority in House and Senate and president of is a member of the same party
divided government
situation in which the House, Senate, and presidency are not controlled by the same party
Duverger's law
the principle that in a democracy with single-member districts and plurality voting, only two parties' candidates will have a realistic chance of winning political office, as in the United States
single-member districts
electoral system in which every elected official represents a geographically defined area
plurality voting
voting system in which candidate who receives the most votes within a geographic area wins that election whether candidate wins a majority of votes
proportional representation
no districts or other geographic units that elect their own representatives instead single nationwide campaign; an electoral system in which parties gain seats in proportion to the number of votes cast for them
incumbents
a politician running for reelection to the office he or she currently holds
general election
the election in which voters cast ballots for House members, senators and (every four years) a president and vice president
majority voting
a voting system in which a candidate must win more than 50% of votes to win election; if no candidate wins enough votes to take office, a runoff election is held between the top two vote-getters
runoff election
under a majority voting system, a second election held only if no candidate wins a majority of the votes in the first general election. Only the top two vote-getters in the first election compete in the runoff
primary
a ballot vote in which citizens select a party's nominee for the general election
caucus
a local meeting in which party members select a party's nominee for the general election
proportional allocation
during pres primaries, practice of determining # of conventional delegates allotted to each candidate based on % of popular vote cast for each candidate (All Democratic primaries and caucuses use this system, as do some states' Republican primaries and ca
winner-take-all
pres primaries, practice of assigning all states delegates to candidate with most popular votes (Some states' Republican caucuses and primaries use this system)
electoral college
the body that votes to select America's president and vice president based on the popular vote in each state. Each candidate nominates a slate of electors who are selected to attend the meeting of the college if their candidate wins the most votes in a st
popular vote
the votes cast by citizens in an election
electoral votes
votes cast by members of the electoral college; after a presidential candidate wins the popular vote in a given state, that candidate's slate of electors casts electoral votes for the candidate on behalf of that state
election cycle
the two-year period between general elections
open seat
an elected position for which there is no incumbent
superdelegates
an unelected delegate who is free to support any candidate for the pres nomination at the party's national convention (Democratic)
GOVT ("get out the vote") or ground game
a campaign's efforts to "get out the vote" or make sure their supporters vote on Election Day
Federal Election Commission
the government agency that enforces and regulates election laws; made up of six presidential appointees, of whom no more than three can be members of the same party
hard money
donations that are used to help elect or defeat a specific candidate
soft money
contributions that can be used for voter mobilization or to promote a policy proposal or point of view as long as these efforts aren't tied to supporting or opposing a particular candidate
paradox of voting
the question of why citizens vote even thought their individual votes stand little chance of changing the election outcome
issue voters
people who are well informed about their own policy preferences and knowledgeable about the candidates, and who use all of this information when they decide how to vote
voting cues
pieces of information about a candidate that are readily available, easy to interpret, and lead a citizen to decide to vote for a particular candidate
incumbency
vote for the incumbent candidate
partisanship
vote for the candidate whose party affiliation matches your own
personal vote
vote for the incumbent if he or she has helped you get assistance from a government agency or has helped your community benefit from desirable government projects
personal characterstics
vote for the candidate whose personal characteristics match your own or suggest you have common values, ideologies, or policy preferences
retrospective evaluations
focus on a small set of votes the incumbent has cast while in office or other duties of the office that you care about, and vote for the incumbent if he or she has behaved the way you want in these circumstances
for (or against) the party in power
vote for a candidate based on a comparison of that candidate's party with an assessment of the party in power
coattails
idea that a popular president can generate additional support for candidates affiliated with his party; coattails are weak or nonexistent in most American elections
split ticket
a ballot on which a voter selects candidates from more than one political party
straight ticket
a ballot on which a voter selects candidates from only one political party
retrospective voting
voting based on past performance and good economic times; voters tend to vote retrospectively
prospective voting
voting based on what a candidate pledges to do about an issue
party column ballot
a type of ballot that encourages party-line voting by listing all of a party's candidates in a column under the party name
office bloc ballot
a ballot on which all candidates are listed under the office for which they are running, making split-ticket voting easier
cross-pressure
occurs when a voter is faced with candidates that reflect their views regarding other issues, voters are left confused so they typically don't vote
insurgent campaign
a campaign based upon a party member who revolts against a section of a political party and methods
15th, 19th, 23rd, 24th, 26th amendments
15 gave African Americans the right to vote
19 gave Women suffrage
23 established the electoral college
24 abolished the poll tax
26 made the voting age 18 years
interest group
an organization of people who share common political interests and aim to influence public policy by electioneering and lobbying
lobbying
efforts to influence public policy through contact with public officials on behalf on an interest group
interest group state
a government in which most policy decisions are determined by the influence of interest groups
trade associations
an interest group composed of companies in the same business or industry (the same "trade") that lobbies for policies that benefit members of the group
centralized groups
interest groups that have a headquarters, usually in Washington DC, as well as members and field offices throughout the country. In general, these groups lobbying decisions are made at headquarters by the group leaders
confederations
interest groups made up of several independent, local organizations that provide much of their funding and hold most of the power
revolving door
the movement of individuals from government positions to jobs with interest groups or lobbying firms, and vice versa
mass associations
interest groups that have a large number of dues-paying individuals as members
peak associations
interest groups whose members are businesses or other organizations rather than individuals
collective action problem
a situation in which the members of a group would benefit by working together to produce some outcome, but each individual is better off refusing to cooperate and reaping benefits from those who do the work
free riding
the result of relying on others to contribute to a collective effort while failing to participate on one's own behalf, yet still benefiting from the group's successes
solidary benefits
satisfaction derived from the experience of working with like-minded people, even if the group's efforts don't achieve the desired impact
purposive benefits
satisfaction derived from the experience of working toward a desired policy goal, even if the goal isn't achieved
coercion
a method of eliminating non participation of free riding by potential group members by requiring participation, as in many labor unions
selective incentives
benefits that can motivate participation in a group effort because they are available only to those who participate, such as member services offered by interest groups
inside strategies
the tactics employed within Washington DC, by interest groups seeking to achieve their policy goals
outside strategies
the tactics employed outside Washington DC, by interest groups seeking to achieve their policy goals
direct lobbying
attempts by interest group staff to influence policy by speaking with elected officials or bureaucrats
grassroots lobbying
lobbying strategy that relies on participation by group members, such as protests or a letter-writing campaign
astroturf lobbying
any lobbying method initiated by an interest group that is designed to look like the spontaneous, independent participation of many individuals
501(c)(3) organization
a tax code classification that applies to most interest groups; this designation makes donations to the group tax deductible but limits the group's political activities
super PACs
type of independent PAC which may raise unlimited sums of money but is not permitted to contribute to or coordinate directly with parties of candidates
referendum
direct vote by citizens on a policy change proposed by the legislative or another gov body, common in state and local elections, but there is no mechanism for a national-level referendum
initiative
direct vote by citizens on a policy change proposed by fellow citizens or organized groups outside government, getting a question on the ballot typically requires collecting a set number of signatures from registered voters in support of the proposal, the
salience
the level of familiarity with an interest group's goals among the general population
amicus curiae brief
filed by an individual or group to present arguments in addition to those presented by the immediate parties to the case
iron triangle (cozy triangle)
mutually dependent relationship among interest groups, congressional committees and and gov agencies that share common policy concern
bundling
tactic of PACs where collect contributions from like-minded individuals and present them to a candidate or party as a bundle, increasing their influence
intergovernmental lobbying
lobbyist network that lobby one level of gov on behalf of another gov organization