A&P Ch 3 McGraw

the study of energy transformations is referred to as

thermodynamics

the two pathways to ATP production are

substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation

intermediate stage

catalyzed by a multienzyme complex, substrate is pyruvate, 2 NADH

glycolysis

substrate is glucose, is anaerobic, 2 ATP and 2 NADH

citric acid cycle

reduces FAD to FADH2, produces 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH2

at equilibrium, a reversible reaction proceeds in _____ direction(s)

both

reversible reaction

CO2 + H2O -><- H2CO3

which of the following determine reaction rate in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction?

the energy required to break existing bonds and the activation energy

true or false: activation energy is only required in endergonic reactions

false

the measure of how quickly a chemical reaction takes place is known as the

reaction rate

enzymes

increase reaction rate, decrease activation energy, and it is a catalyst

_____ is the collective term for all the synthesis reactions in the body

anabolism

a _____ binds to the active site of an enzyme to stop the enzyme from catalyzing a reaction

competitive inhibitor

enzyme action steps

substrate binds to active site, change in enzyme structure leads to induced fit, the change in enzyme structure stresses bonds in the substrate, substrates bonds are broken, new bonds are formed, the product is released from enzyme

which are the products of pyruvate dehydrogenase?

acetyl coa and co2

what type of reaction results when small molecules combine to make a larger one?

synthesis

the smallest enzymes are around _____ amino acids long

60

how many turns of the citric acid cycle are required to break down one molecule of glucose?

2

a biologically active catalyst is known as a(n)

enzyme

which of the following organic molecules may be oxidized to generate ATP?

glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids

which word describes decomposition in the body?

catabolism

which type of reaction involves both synthesis and decomposition?

exchange

an _____ reaction occurs when electrons are transformed from one chemical structure to another

oxidation-reduction

if an electron and a hydrogen ion are removed, the structure is said to have been

oxidized

if a hydrogen ion and an electron is added to a structure during a chemical reaction, the structure is said to have been

reduced

in an _____ reaction, the amount of energy in the products is less than the amount of energy in the reactants

exergonic

most catabolic reactions release energy meaning they are also _____

exergonic

in an _____ reaction, the products have more energy than the reactants

endergonic

most anabolic reactions are also _____, meaning that they require energy

endergonic

if the rate of a reaction leads to a net loss of reactants, then the reaction is called

irreversible

classifying chemical rations

changes in chemical energy, chemical structure, reversibility/irrebersibility

when a molecule or ion gains an electron during a reaction, it is said to have been

reduced

which terms can be used to classify reactions based on the relative amounts of energy in reactants and products?

exergonic and endergonic

oxidoreductase

transfer electrons from one substance to another

transferase

transfers a functional group

hydrolase

splits a chemical bond using water

isomerase

converts one isomer to another

ligase

bonds two molecules together

lyase

splits a chemical bond in the absence of water

which are considered part of the electron transport chain?

electron carriers, H+ pumps, ATP synthase

true or false: glucose is preferentially oxidized during times of fasting or starvation

false

_____ energy is the energy of position or stored energy. _____ energy is the energy og motion

potential/kinetic

the collective term for all of the chemical reactions in a living organism is

metabolism

chemical reactions can be classified by the relative amounts of energy in the reactants and products by using the terms

exergonic and endergonic

which are forms of radiant energy?

ultraviolet light, visible light, radio waves

which are forms of kinetic energy?

mechanical energy, radiant energy, sound energy

true or false: heat is usually available to do work

false

a student proposed that a chemical reaction would create more energy than the original reactants possessed. this would violate the _____ law of thermodynamics

first

the _____ law of thermodynamics states that a quantity of energy can't be completely transferred from one form into another

second

which function(s) primarily as energy storage in the human body?

triglycerides, ATP, glycogen

the propagation of an impulse in a neuron is an example of

electrical energy

true or false: the heart moves blood by imparting electrical energy to the blood

false

the vibrating strings on a violin imparts _____ kinetic energy to the air around it

sound

mechanical and electrical energy are both forms of _____ energy

kinetic

the _____ law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed

first

which of the following are locations of enzymes involved in glucose oxidation?

the cytosol and the mitochondria

_____ are present prior to the start of a chemical reaction

reactants

which are involved in a chemical reaction?

formation of chemical bonds and breakdown of chemical bonds

a _____ is a method of writing a summary of the changes that occur in a chemical reaction

chemical equation

a(n) _____ chemical reaction occurs when a large molecule is broken down into smaller structures

decomposition

which are true of chemical energy?

chemical energy is used for synthesis of molecules, chemical energy is used to establish concentration gradients, and chemical energy is a form of potential energy

true or false: proteins can serve as a form of energy storage in describing forms of kinetic energy, _____ energy is the energy of an object in motion, while _____ energy is the energy of vibrations in solids, liquids, or gasses

mechanical/sound

the higher the frequency of radiant waves, the _____ the energy of the wave

higher

which type(s) of radiant energy could penetrate the body and mutate DNA?

gamma rays

the pigment melanin protects the skin from

UV light energy

whenever energy is transferred from one form to another, some of that energy is lost as

heat

glycolysis steps

glucose splits into two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, NADH and ATP are formed, ATP and pyruvate are formed

how many molecules of ATP are formed during glycolysis?

4

phosphofructokinase contains an allosteric regulatory site which binds to

ATP

phosphofructokinase is the target of _____ to regulate glycolysis

negative feedback

if oxygen is not present, then pyruvate is converted to

lactate

the cristae of mitochondria are formed from folds in the

inner membrane

the reaction of the _____ of aerobic cellular respiration is catalyzed by pyruvate dehydrogenase

intermediate stage

the net energy output of glycolysis is _____ molecules of ATP and _____ molecules of NADH

2/2

the enzymes of the electron transport system are located in the _____ membrane of mitochondrion

inner

a carbon and two oxygens are removed from pyruvate in a process known as

decarboxylation

how many molecules of NAD+ are reduced from the energy in one glucose molecule during the intermediate stage of glucose oxidation?

2

oxaloacetic acid is involved in the _____ step of the citric acid cycle and is regenerated in the _____ step

first/last

by the end of the citric acid cycle, the carbon atoms of glucose have been transferred to

carbon dioxide

the set of proteins in the cristae of the mitochondrion which collectively extract the energy from reduced coenzymes to form ATP are called the

electron transport system

the series of electron carriers in the cristae of the mitochondrion is collectively called the

electron transport chain

the energy from 2 ATP molecules is consumed during glucose oxidation. what is the energy used for?

to transport NADH

which makes the most efficient use of the energy in glucose?

aerobic respiration

if the electron transport chain does not oxidize NADH to NAD+, what may happen to glycolysis?

it may eventually stop

what is the set number of ATP molecules that can be produced from the oxidation of a glucose molecule under anaerobic conditions?

2

in order to form lactic acid, H+ is transferred from _____ to _____

NADH/pyruvate

why does pyruvate need to be converted to lactic acid in order for glycolysis to continue in the absence of oxygen?

in the absence of oxygen, NADH is not converted to NAD+ by the electron transport chain, and NAD+ levels fall

true or false: extracting energy from fatty acids to make ATP always requires oxygen

true

the type of amino acids that may enter glycolysis, the intermediate stage, and the citric acid cycle at different points are _____ amino acids

deaminated

the hydrogen atoms needed to convert pyruvate to lactic acid comes from

NADH

_____ is the process used to convert fatty acids to acetyl coa

beta-oxidation

the reduced product in an oxidation-reduction reaction has become _____ negative in charge by the addition of an electron

more

NADH is the reduced form of NAD+ because

NAD+ has gained both a H+ ion and 2 electrons

when electrons move during an oxidation-reduction reaction, they possess _____ energy that can be used to do _____

kinetic/work

the formation of ATP from ADP and Pi is an example of a(n)

endergonic reaction

if carbon dioxide is removed from CO2 + H2O <--> H2CO3, the amount of carbonic acid will

decrease

what conditions will increase the rate of a chemical reaction?

increased reactant concentration, increased temperature, and addition of a catalyst

increasing the temperature will _____ the rate of a chemical reaction by _____ the kinetic energy of the reactants

increase/increasing

the temperature at which an enzyme functions most efficiently is the

optimal temperature

a(n) _____ binds to an enzyme to stop its action

inhibitor

a(n) _____ binds to a site apart from the active site to prevent an enzyme from catalyzing a reaction

noncompetitive inhibitor

how does a noncompetitive inhibitor affect enzyme action?

binding to an allosteric site causes a conformational change

how are metabolic pathways usually regulated?

negative feedback

true or false: the enzymes in a multienzyme complex can be spread throughout a cell

false

an advantage of clustering enzyme by addition of a phosphate is referred to as

phosphorylation

an enzyme that regulates the activity of another enzyme by removing a phosphate group is called a

phosphatase

the products produced by one enzyme of a metabolic pathway can act as _____ of another enzyme

allosteric inhibitors

the binding of a noncompetitive inhibitor induces a _____ change in an enzyme

conformational

a progressive change in substrate molecules catalyzed by a series of enzymes is referred as a(n)

metabolic pathway

if multiple enzymes in a metabolic pathway are physically attached to each other, they form a

multienzyme complex

the process of removing a phosphate is

dephosphorylation

true or false: competitive inhibitors do not resemble substraets

false

the greater the amount of a competitive inhibitor the _____ likely a substrate is to occupy the active site of an enzyme

less

an enzyme that is catalyzing a reaction at the maximum rate is said to be

saturated

citric acid cycle in order

acetyl coa --> citrate --> isocitrate --> alpha-ketoglutarate --> succinyl coa

which of these effects on enzymes and their function can result from changes in pH?

denaturation, changes in H+ associated with an enzyme, changes in enzyme structure

the temporary structure formed when an enzyme binds to a substrate is known as an

enzyme substrate complex

_____ is a multistep process in which organic molecules like glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids are broken down to exact energy for ATP production

cellular respiration

which are typical locations of enzymes?

within the cellular cytosol and embedded in the plasma membrane

a molecule that assists an enzyme is performing its function is known as a(n)

cofactor

examples of cofactors

NAD+, zinc, vitamin b12

an organic cofactor is known as a(n)

coenzyme

the names of most enzymes end with the suffix

-ase

which condition will likely increase enzyme activity?

mild fever

what would be the likely result of severe fever or hypothermia?

enzyme denaturation

pancreatic amylase is _____ into the lumen of the small intestine, while lactase is found in the _____ of intestinal cells

released/plasma membranes

most enzymes are capable of catalyzing _____ type(s) of reaction(s)

one

intermediate substrates of glycolysis

glucose --> glucose 6-p --> fructose 6-p --> fructose 1,6-p --> glyceraldehyde 3-p

glucose _____ is the step-by-step breakdown of glucose to release energy for the synthesis of ATP

oxidation