CHAPTER 1
. . . The History of Crime and Corrections
The criminal justice system
3 major components:
1) Police: entry into system
2) Courts: Prosecution & pretrial, adjudication, sentencing and sanctions
3) Corrections: probation, prison, and parole
-interrelated, interdependent & interactive internal subsystems.
-reactive with the en
Offender processing in the criminal justice system
-Offenders (cases) are processed as input, doing something to, for, or with them. The input (offenders) is sent to next subsystem or back to external environment.
-Offenders who do not recidivate are "completed products," whereas recidivists would be cons
Limitations of the system theory
-Common goals, but differing ideas of how to reach them.
-Hard time working together toward common goals.
-Pressure to move products (cases) along may compromise goals
-Problem in subsystem can affect entire system
Correctional funnel modes
-The public sees corrections as preventing future crime through deterrence and incapacitation to limit future offending . . . but,
the correctional system handles a very small % of criminals
-Large difference between # of crimes reported and # of offender
Who founded the Classical School?
Cesare Beccaria :
-Italian theorist in 18th century (1738-1794)
-Suggested linking crime causation to punishments
-Essays on Crimes & Punishments, 1764
Classical School
-Theory linking crime causation to punishment based on offenders' free will and hedonism (the choice made to maximize pleasure & avoid pain)
-Purpose of punishment= utility, prevention of crime
-Crime= injury to society
-Prevention= more important than pu
Jeremy Bentham
(1748-1838):
-Built on Beccaria's principles of hedonism (hedonism calculus)
-Founder of "panopticon" prison design
circular building with glass roof; cells around circumference, on each story
Hedonistic Calculus
-Built on by Jeremy Bentham
-Idea that the main object of an intellectual person is to achieve the most pleasure and the least pain and that individuals are constantly calculating the pluses and minuses of their potential actions.
Who founded the Positive School?
Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909)
-Italian doctor
Conducted research on links between criminality & physical traits.
Positive School
-Belief that criminals do not have complete choice over their criminal actions and may commit actions that are beyond their control
-Criminals may be born/actions are pre-determined
-Some criminals are insane -commit crime because their brain is affected.
What is atavism?
-Existence of features common in early stages of human evolution. E.g. large foreheads, large amts. of body hair
-Related to positive school
Neoclassical School
-Compromise between classical and positive schools
-While holding offenders accountable for their crimes, allowing some consideration for circumstances
-No one has complete free will, it is influenced by other factors, but still make choices
-Factors such
Early responses to crime
Brutal:
-Torture, beatings, mutilation, branding, an eye for an eye, banishment
-Transportation: like deportation- used in England 17th and 18th cent. sending them to British colonies
-Linking crime and sin: whipping, stocks, branks, pillories
-No prisons
John Howard
-Most famous jail reformer
-Sheriff in Bedfordshire, England late 1700s
-Coined term penitentiary: emphasized penance as purpose of punishment
-Penitentiary Act of 1779
Penitentiary Act of 1779
-Drafted by John Howard
4 principles:
-Secure & sanitary structure
-Systematic inspection
-Abolition of prisoner fees for services &
release
-Reformatory regimen
Features:
-Solitary cells at night
-Hard labor in common rooms by day
-Religious instruction/
William Penn
Quaker and Governor of Pennsylvania who was reformer of prisons in due to dissatisfaction.
-Abolished capital punishment for crimes besides murder
-Free food and lodging for inmates
-House of detention, not stocks
What is considered to be the first penitentiary or prison in the U.S?
Walnut Street Jail
Established by The Philadelphia Society for Alleviating the Miseries of Public Prison
-Late 1700s
-Revival of Quaker code
-Regime of hard work
-Individual cells with no talking
-Themes: labor, discipline, solitary/silent confinement, re
How is the Pennsylvania system different from the Auburn prison system?
PENNSYLVANIA (Separate and silent):
-Like Walnut St. Jail
-Emphasized reformation and avoidance of criminal contamination
-Western State and Eastern State Pennitentiary
-Bible reading/reflection and reform through salvation
Problems: Expensive, limited pr
Early 1800s
-Several large prisons built with Auburn model --> problems with overcrowding
-New prisons looked to improve and reduce # of inmates
Captain Alexander Maconochie & Sir Walter Crofton
-Reformers (British and Irish)
-Used concept of indeterminate sentencing, emphasizing preparing offenders for release, giving inmates opportunity to gradually reduce controls and restrictions, and releasing offenders on conditional basis
-More humanitaria
National Prison Association
Formed in 1870
Group of prison admin, politicians, and citizens
Formally adopted principles of Irish system (Sir Walter Crofton) --> emphasizing reformation
Reformatory Era (1870-1910)
Reformation with expanded educational & vocational programs. Rewards for good behavior and use of indeterminate sentence ( preparing offenders for release on conditional basis)
Offender's future was focus.
Industrial Prison Era (1910-1935)`
-# of inmates grew 170% resulting in building huge prisons (Big Houses).
-Emphasis was on inmate labor & production so prison would be economically self-supporting.
-Major interest in managing prisons by external parties ($$ to be made)
Ended when Great D
Period of Transition (1935-1960)
Enforced idleness, lack of professional programs, and excessive size and overcrowding led to prisoner discontent. Between 1950-1966 > than 100 riots and major disturbances occurred in U.S.
Cooper v. Pate (1964)
Ended the hands of doctrine of the court in operations of prison
Opened door for inmates to file suits of cruel and inhumane conditions
Thee flood of requests led to further reform
Rehabilitation Era (1960-1980)
Medical Model:
-Offenders were thought of as "sick" with problems causing their criminality.
-Rehabilitative programs address such problems & prepare them for release as productive, crime-free individuals.
-Strengthening ties to community
-Reintegration w
Martinson's review of correctional programs and "what works
Conclusion: "nothing works"
-No consistent findings that any single treatment program worked in reducing recidivism
Retributive Era (1980s-1990s)
1980s increase of violent crimes leads to involvement of public and politics --->
-"Get tough" on crime & criminals, isolating offenders from society and making them serve "hard time."
-Public safety was a major concern with tougher punishments to deter &
What are the sentencing goals of corrections?
1) Punishment
2) Deterrence
3) Incapacitation
4) Rehabilitation
5) Restitution
Punishment
Sentencing goal of corrections
-Is the most dominant goal
-Focused on the past
-Justice, maintaining order, fairness
-Retribution (punishment on those who deserve to be punished)
-Test of proportionality
Test of proportionality
Results of Salem v. Helm (1983)
Test used to guide sentencing based on the gravity of the offense and consistency of the severity of punishment
Part of punishment goal of sentencing
Deterrence
Sentencing goal of corrections
-Focused on future behavior
-Specific= effect of punishment on individual that prevents them from committing future crimes (Logical, but doesn't work)
-General= Recognition that criminal acts result in punishment, and the ef
Incapacitation
Sentencing goal of corrections
-Reducing offenders ability or capacity to commit further crimes
-Reactive and proactive (past and future)
-Reduces crime by incapacitating offenders who are likely to offend again
-Protecting society
-Selective incapacitati
Rehabilitation
Sentencing goal of corrections
-Programmed effort to alter the attitudes and behaviors of inmates and improve their likelihood of becoming law abiding citizens
-Return to society
-Proactive- future looking
-Reducing recidivism
-Efforts: reducing motivatio
Recidivism
State of relapse that occurs when offenders complete their criminal punishment
Restitution
Sentencing goal of corrections
-Currently gaining popularity
-Acts by which criminals make right or repay society or their victims for their wrongs
-Victim's movement- no longer a forgotten participant in system. Involved in process.
-Restorative justice
CHAPTER 3
. . . JAILS
Penitentiary Act of 1779
-Reforms done by sheriff John Howard
4 requirements:
1) Safe and sanitary conditions
2) Inspections of jails
3) Abolishing fees
4) Reforms to practices
Jail
-Locally operated correctional facilities that confine people before or after adjudication
-Variety of functions with variety of inmates
-Complex and require flexibility
-Normally operated by county Gov., in rural areas managed by sheriff
-3,282 jails in
What was is the jail population and jail incarceration rate?
731,208 = # incarcerated
Incarceration rate= # of persons per 100,000 who are in jail or prison
-doubled between 1985 and 2007
-231 persons per 100,000
Growth factors:
-tough on crime mentality of public
-Increased # of felons awaiting prison transfer (ov
What do the demographics of jails look like currently?
-Most jail inmates are male (86%) and adult (99.4%), but younger (61.8% under age 35)
-In midyear 2013, 47.2% were White (77.7% of U.S. pop), 35.8% were Black (13.2% of U.S. pop.) and 14.8% were Hispanic (17.1% of pop.)
-HSE or less = 86.9%
-Most (73%) ha
What types of crime were committed by jail inmates in 2013?
pretrial detainees (63%)
Felons (28%) sentenced to 1 yr <
Felons (11.7%) awaiting prison transfer
Those awaiting federal or state jurisdiction - INS (3.3%)
-Probation, parole & bond absconders & violators
-Offenders in community supervision prgms. -day
-M
What is the average length of stay in jail?
-Much different than prison
-Pop.= 731,208, but had admitted 11.7 million in that year
Average length= 15-20 days
---> this is misleading
-Many are released after 48 hours on bond
-Those who don't make bail wait 75-90 days for trial
What % of jail inmates were not yet convicted , awaiting trial?
63%
Describe an objective jail classification system and the uses for this classification system
-Statistical approach to consider the risk of escape and violence by inmates
-Identify offenders criminal histories and personal characteristics that have been statistically linked to being dangerous
-Assessment of risk
Problems:
-Little info available on
What types of programs are offered in most jails?
Education, substance abuse counseling, or work
But, very limited, only a few inmates participate
Not enough to get rid of idleness
Jail designs
Contemporary:
-More modern
-Often next to county court buildings
-Architecture:
Must be secure, but cities don't want
them to look like jails from the outside
1st Generation
Podular designs
2nd Generation
1st Generation Jail Design
Intermitten supervision
-Linear design: cells aligned in long straight rows with walkways for COs to walk and observe
-Disadvantages:
-COs could not observe from a single location--> little communication
-No room for recreation- leads to restlessness and
2nd Generation Jail Designs
Remote supervision
-Podular design implemented to improve supervision and resolve issues.
-Officers in secure control room overlooking cells and dayroom. Secure glass and controls
-Design provides common dayroom areas in center of the unit where inmates c
3rd Generation Jail Designs
Direct supervision
"New Generation"
Remote control centers in which COs are located in the housing unit in direct contact with inmates
Advantages:
Continuous supervision, more communication, better control, less violence, safer
Define a 'private jail." What % of jail inmates are held in private jails
Any facility run by non-government agency and usually for-profit
contracts with Gov. to provide security, housing, and programs for offenders
Controversies
today= 37 private jails
Used to address overcrowding and $$ issues
Only 8% of inmates in private ja
What % of jails do an initial screening for mental illness?
Although most jails (78%) screen for mental health problems at intake; very few offer intensive mental health programs.
According to a U.S. Department of Justice report, what % of all jail inmates were estimated to have a mental illness (2005and 2009 surveys)?
estimate that 16% of all jail inmates have a mental illness.
Know the incidence of suicide in jail (84) and the components of suicide prevention programs (85-86)
Suicide in jails is much higher than in prison or community.
Of inmate jail deaths, suicide was the leading cause of deaths (33.2%)
Components Suicide Prevention Program -(Most Jails):
-Training of ALL staff
-Mandatory intake screening & inmate assessment
Bell v. Wolfish (1979)
U.S. Supreme Court established the "punitive intent standard to evaluate the constitutionality of conditions for pretrial detainees."
Considering violations of 8th amendment regarding jail operations
Since then, the courts have regularly ruled against the
CHAPTER 5
. . . PRISON SYSTEMS
Define prison
-Institutions designed to hold convicted adult felons, serving a sentence of one year or more
-1,574,700 offenders incarcerated in state and federal prisons.
-Over 1,250 prisons
Prison incarceration rate is 478 people per 100,000 population (although this
Define a mission and the dual purpose mission of most prisons
Statement of an organization's major function and what it is to accomplish, or its basic purposes, to include general outcomes that is committed to achieving
Dual purpose:
-Supervising criminal offenders, protecting public, and offering programs to assist
Organization of Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP)
Highly centralized organized into six regions:
Mid-Atlantic (MXR), Northeast (NER), Southeast (SER), North Central (NCR), South Central (SCR), & Western (WXR)
-Each region has a Regional Director & warden reports to Director in that region
-Has more than
Who appoints the Director of Bureau of Prisons (see power points -130))?
Appointed by, & reports to, U.S. Attorney General
Who was the first director of the BOP and who is the current director (power points)?
First director was Sanford Bates.
Current director is Charles E. Samuels., Jr
Organization of the state correctional system
Largely decentralized- top level decision-making processes are dispersed throughout system rather than being concentrated in one person, place or legislative body.
Most common organizational model has director, commissioner or secretary as a cabinet level
Who appoints the Secretary or Director of the state prison (power points)?
Appointed by and reporting to, Governor.
Rhodes v. Chapman (1981)
Supreme Court decision that overcrowded conditions resulting in 2 inmates housed in cells designed for one person was NOT a violation of the 8th Amendment right of protection from cruel and unusual punishment
Consideration of "totality of conditions"- no
Bruscino v. Carlson (1987)
Federal court decision
Allowed inmates to be locked up for all but 5 hours a day
Revolved around a lockdown at U.S. Penitentiary in Marion, IL.
Explain the "new penology
Emphasis on the rational and efficient deployment of control strategies for managing and confining high-risk criminal populations (rather than on rehabilitation or reducing recidivism)
Transition in 1990s
toughening of philosophical approaches
More sent t
Prison rate
By 2013, the prison rate had reached 478 people per 100,000 population.
Federalized crime
The making of a crime a federal rather than a state offense, results when the U.S. Congress decides that it desires federal law enforcement and prosecution of certain offenses
Ex: bank robbery, kidnapping, murder of public officials, etc.
besides traditio
Three Penitentiary Act 1891
-1891 Act of Congress that authorized the construction of the first three federal prisons to house federal offenders
-Necessary because of overcrowding of state prisons
Sentencing Reform Act 1984
1984
Act of Congress that abolished parole, established determined sentencing, and reduced the amount of good time available for federal offenders
Led to tremendous population growth in prisons
mandatory minimum sentencing
Crackdown on illegal immigration
What is the most common organizational model for the state correctional system?
-Most (32) states use Department of Corrections reporting to an executive
-Others (11) use separate departments reporting to boards or commissions
-1 state falls under Public safety umbrella
-1 under social services umbrella
Most common model: (24 states)
Features of the different prison security levels in the state system
-Most inmates are classified med. security (2/5). 40%
-Then max. security (about 1/3) 33%
-Then min. security (1/5) 20%
-Largest # of prison facilities are classified min. security for inmates serving short prison sentences.
-Similar security classificati
Know the types of offenses committed by inmates in state prisons
VIOLENT - (54.0%)
Murder - 23.6%
Rape - 22.8%
Robbery - 25.4%
Other assault -19.8%
PROPERTY - (19%)
DRUG - (16%
PUBLIC ORDER/OTHER (11%)
What type of offender was responsible for the largest growth in state prison inmates and in federal prison inmates?
Largest growth among state prison inmates was among violent offenders
But in federal prison, is drug crimes
What % of state and federal inmates are held in private prisons?
8.4%
133,044 inmates
Define a brigs, ICE, and a territorial prison and their functions
Immigration facilities - U.S. Immigration and Custom Enforcement (ICE)- houses illegal aliens pending a hearing or deportation -(approximately 370,000 detainees)
Brigs (operated by U.S. military-Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Airforce) -houses offenders convic
CHAPTER 10
. . . THE MANAGEMENT OF PRISONS
The largest correctional agencies in order of # of inmates are:
BOP (217,815) Federal Bureau of Prisons
Texas (166,372)
California (134,534)
Florida (101,930)
Georgia (55,457)
New York (54,210)
Understand the functions of the Office of the Director, Secretary or Commissioner - e.g. identify the organizational entities that often reside in the office of the director
Director= top : <--- Adm. assist.
Asst. Director:
- Chief Inspector (Internal Affairs)
-Office of Correctional healthcare
-Division of parole and community services
Legal services
Chief of Staff:
-Legislative liaison
-Communications
HR
Describe the three general categories that the legal section of a correctional agency deals with
1) responding to inmate lawsuits
2) reviewing policy for impact
3) giving general advice regarding implementation
In the Internal Affairs Division, what are the duties of an Inspector?
Investigating allegations by inmates against staff
What are the two major functions of the administrative section of a correctional agency?
1) Budget development and accounting
2) New prison design and construction
Corrections budget becomes part of entire state budget.
What are the human resource activities carried out by the Central Headquarters or each individual prison?
Central:
labor relations, affirmative action, EEO, training rules
Negotiating labor contracts (union)
Personal:
functions of recruitment, hiring, evaluations, and retirement
Who is Richard P. Seiter?
PhD., 1975 - Ohio State University, Public Administration
Author, Corrections. An Introduction
Director & Professor, St. Louis University, 1999-2005
Warden & Director, Federal Bureau of Prison, 1979-1982
Director of Ohio Rehabilitation & Correction, 1983-
Who is Thomas Murton?
penologist, prison reformer, warden
penal reform and his work as an Arkansas prison
-Appointed by Gov. Winthrop Rockefeller to reform Arkansas prison system, in particular, two large prison farms (Tucker and Cummins State Prison Farms employing over 1,000
What is the average salary and tenure of a Director of an adult correctional agency (285-286)?.
85% of a corr. budget is spent on staff salaries)
What does the largest component, custody and security or correctional services, encompass?
includes all the security functions in prison, including duties of security staff (uniformed staff), SHU operations, inmate transportation & inmate disciplinary process. Some states have non-uniformed staff teachers & industrial specialists carry out secu
List the components of the treatment programs department in a prison,
professional staff-
All the rehabilitative functions -Education (teachers must be certified & teach a general topic), vocational training, recreation, mental health (usually1-2 PhD psychologists, few prisons have a FT psychiatrist but rather contract with
Define unit management in terms of its components
Used in most states & BOP- established in 1966 in BOP - prison organized into smaller components, authority is decentralized to manage inmates.
1) Small, self-contained, more manageable units of inmate living (200-300 inmates).
2) Staff office area on hou
Advantages of Unit Management
Advantages:
-Inmates develop common identity & close association with each other & staff
-Increases frequency of contacts with staff & inmates
-Better communication between individuals
-More individualized classification & program planning
-More valuable
Disadvantages of Unit Management
-Unit management is costly, higher than for traditional management.
Implementing unit management takes time & resources.
-Executive staff must spend time planning/developing it. Funds must be allocated, needed positions identified, opponents won over, sta
What is the American Correctional Association (ACA)
Largest professional organization for corrections in the U.S.
Publishes standards manuals with policies and practices
Like the AMA or ABA
Distinguish between a policy audit, policy implementation audit, and ACA accreditation
Policy audit -document review to ascertain whether broad agency policy is in place at the prison fpr specific procedures & processes.
Policy implementation audit -review of actual operations to identify whether procedures prescribed by policy are consiste
What is an objective classification system and an internal classification system (e.g. AIMS) for inmates?
Objective Classification system - (Most states) -
(actuarial risk assessment) -Orderly, objective way to separate violent from nonviolent inmates. Six variables are considered imp. for classification: history of escape/attempted escape, detainers, type of
What is a reclassification review?
reclassification of inmates due to security or treatment purposes may act as a motivator for good behavior.
Reclassification reviews are scheduled at regular intervals (often 3 or 6 months). E.g serious inmate misbehavior may result in reclassification to
Define an inmate disciplinary system and its components
-Written policy of documenting prohibited behavior, a copy is provided to all inmates upon admission.
-Fair & equitable set of corresponding sanctions increasing w/severity of rule violation & process to appeal those sanctions.
-Way to separate those accu
What is the administrative appeals processes for an inmate to appeal a disciplinary sanction (301)?
Informal process for inmates to appeal to a disciplinary sanction or seek remedy of any other injustice
2 levels:
1) reconsideration by warden
2) consideration by agency headquarters
Limited to procedural and due process rights- no evidence can be present
Look over the list of sanctions in order of severity for rule violation (300-301).
for minor infraction, hearing panel (unit
disciplinary committee (UDCV) can determine guilt & impose minor sanctions, such as a warning, reprimand (written admonishment against behavior with no other sanction or punishment), assignment of extra duty or re
Define turnover for COs
Turnover presents a problem for the recruitment and hire of COs. Several studies reported an average 16-17% turnover rate among COs. Some studies reported a 45% rate.
Noncompetitive compensation was the most frequently cited reason for recruitment difficu
Define collective bargaining for COs
To establish/protect employee rights, improve working conditions and benefits, to establish/maintain more harmonious employer/employee relationships and to establish a participative role for employees in decisions affecting employees.
Formal recognition o
CHAPTER 12
. . . WORLD OF PRISON STAFF
Differentiate between a closed and an open prison systems
Closed system:
-Early prisons were closed systems under the direct control of their wardens & without much interest or any interference from external groups.
-Consist of only internal environment
Open system:
Frequent interactions between organization and
Joseph E. Ragen
Warden Joseph E. Ragen:
-Statesville Penitentiary
-Maximum Security Prison -Northern Illinois
-1936-1961
-President of the ACA
-He transformed prison from a violent, unruly prison into an efficient, paramilitary organization.
-"Autonomous Era Warden" old
what is the era of the "bureaucratic warden" or a transactional leader? (345).
Wardens must take responsibility for maintaining a safe, secure, humane prison in accordance w/ accepted standards (constitutional mandates, centralized policies & accreditation standards of professional organizations "( p. 363). Modern wardens are manag
Director George Beto "Walking George
Director of Texas Dept. of Corrections (TDC) 1962-1972
-Masters and PhD
-Ordained minister
-belief in reform thru rehabilitation, education & control
employed a style of management called "management by walking around"
created Building Tender System (BTs)
Richard McGee
First director of California Department
of Corrections (CDC)
1944-1961
-Master degree
belief in reformation & control
established medical & feeding programs, such as dairies & farms at each prison
improved inmate academic & vocational programs, expanded d
Characterize the role of the modern prison warden (e.g. a manager of resources ( 344-345). .
2 types of leadership:
1) Transactional Leaders-
Traditional authorities within prison org. with position, power & knowledge of a substantive area; they provided answers & direction for any issue agency confronted. Worked well in a stable environment w/ro
Be familiar with the different categories of CO assignments/post orders e.g. yard officer (347-348).
-Living units
-Work detail supervisors
-Industrial shop and school officers
-Yard officers
-Administration building assignments
-Perimeter security
-Relief officers
post orders= detailed description of activities required for each category (organized by t
Advantages and disadvantages of being CO
Disadvantages:
-Long hours
-Dead end career
-Low pay
-Dangerous
-Conflicting roles =stress
-Low public image
-High turnover
Low entry
Advantages:
-Job security
-Low entry
-Growth industry
-Easy to supplement with OT or part time
Look over the stress of correctional work (349-350).and recruiting and retaining Cos (354)
Stress:
1) Organizational sources - understaffing (high turnover, excessive use of sick leave), overtime, shift work (rotation) & supervisor demands
2) Work-related sources - threat of violence, inmate demands /manipulations, & problems w/ coworkers (comp
Describe treatment and program staff (355-356).
-Deliver programs to inmates: education, vocational, substance abuse, recreation, religious, psychological
-Managers in each area (professional staff)
% of women working as COs
22.7%
(3/4 or 77% work in prisons for me)
What is the largest private prison company in the United States (354)?
Corrections Corporation of America
What are some ways to improve the recruitment and retention of COs (357)?
-More competitive compensation
-Positive changes to culture
What are the two general types of culture that develops in a prison and how they affect the operation of a prison (357-359?
Management culture=
based on way prison leadership deals with and communicate with subordinate staff- continuum= autocratic-empowered
Relationship culture=
based on how staff members view and communicate with inmates, continuum= autocratic-reasoned
Both a
What components constitute the Services Department in prison?
...
What did the amendment in 1972 of Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act accomplish?
Title VII of 1964 Civil Rights Act, amended in 1972, bans employment discrimination on the basis of race, religion, sex & national origin opened the door for women to work as COs in prisons for men.
A provision, however, in Title VII states that some disc
Define a Bona Fide Occupational qualification (BFOQ - 360). How does it affect the hire and deployment of female COs? What does the research show concerning the differences in the job performance of male and female COs? E.g. higher security were more like
In 2012, 28.0% of bailiffs, COs, & jailers were female.
Studies have found either no or only minor differences in attitudes & job performance of female COs compared to men. Female COs may have a more calming & normalized influence on a prison.
Stereotypes
Describe the sources of stress for female COs experience working in prisons for men (360-363).
Female jail officers reported paternalistic treatment, exclusion from work socialization opportunities, higher job stress, & more limited career prospects.
Female COs experienced various problems due to sexual harassment & sexism from male coworkers.
They
Dothard v. Rawlinson (1977)
U.S. Supreme Court ruled a BFOQ prohibiting female COs from contact w/ male inmates was allowable because of deplorable conditions of Ala. prisons & presence of predatory male sex offenders as inmates.
Gunther v. Iowa (1979)
U.S. District Court ruled inmate privacy was not a valid reason to refuse to hire women as COs. State could create staffing & assignment patterns to avoid infringing on inmate privacy.
What does the largest component, custody and security or correctional services, encompass (287)?
...