According to the US Department of Justice, at the end of 2010, an estimated ____million adults in the United States (1 in 48 adults) were under some type of correctional supervision
7.1
According to the US Department of Justice, _____ "includes all government agencies, facilities, programs, procedures, personnel, and techniques concerned with the intake, custody, con?nement, supervision, or treatment, or presentencing or predisposition i
corrections
corrections
refers to all government actions intended to manage adults who have been accused or convicted of criminal o?enses and juveniles who have been charged with or found guilty of delinquency or a status o?ense.
In 1980, fewer than ___million people were under any form of institutional or community supervision.
2
the nation's correctional systems reported more than ____million detainees, inmates, and supervisees in 2010.
7
In 2010, blacks accounted for 13.6 percent of the roughly 309.3 million people in the United States, or about 42 million individuals, but ____ percent of the inmates in state and federal facilities were black.
40
About 50.5 million people, 16.3 percent of the total US population in 2010, were Hispanics, but they constituted ___ percent of the prison population that year.
20
Non-Hispanic whites accounted for most of the remaining 196.8 million US residents in 2010, 63.7 percent of the total, but whites made up just ____percent of the inmate population.
35
about one in _____ black males, one in six Hispanic males, and 1 in 17 white males are expected to go to prison during their lifetimes (Bonczar 2003).
three
Blacks and Hispanics as a group make up ____percent of the nation's probationers and 57 percent of the parolees,
43
This unequal representation of blacks and Hispanics is often referred to as _____ .
disproportionate minority contact (DMC)
The number of female prisoners increased ___ percent (versus 13.4 percent for men) between 2000 and 2010: by the end of 2010, women accounted for 7 percent of all prisoners
21
by the end of 2010, _____ accounted for 7 percent of all prisoners
women
retribution
is the belief that punishment must avenge for a harm done to another.
Code of Hammurabi
which dates back to the eighteenth century bce, provided, "If a man destroy the eye of another man, they shall destroy his eye. If he break a man's bone, they shall break his bone. If a man knock out a tooth of a man of his own rank, they shall knock out his tooth.
Law of Moses
stipulated that "thou shalt give life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burning for burning, wound for wound, stripe for stripe
lex talionis
the law of retaliation or revenge, a legal principle that requires a response in kind for crimes committed
just deserts or retributive justice
emerged in the 70's and suggests that criminals earn society's wrath and deserve to be punished for the sake of punishment
In the 1990s, critics of the corrections system suggested that the retributive justice philosophy had evolved into a philosophy of ____
penal harm
penal harm
the belief that punishment, particularly incarceration, should be uncomfortable.
Since the 1980s, the prison population in the United States has increased at a far greater rate than the prison system's ability to deal with it. The chief mechanisms of change were ___________
mandatory sentencing laws and restrictions on or even the abolition of discretionary parole.
The _____ philosophy assumes that certain and severe punishment can "discourage future crime by
the o?ender and by others
deterrence
speci?c deterrence
the assumption that punishment dissuades the o?ender from repeating the same o?ense or committing a new one.
The ultimate form of speci?c deterrence is the______
death penalty
general deterrence
would punish the individual to prevent others in society from committing the same or similar crimes. This philosophy assumes that people can learn through the experience of others that punishments meted out to others serve as object lessons for the rest of us.
rehabilitation
the belief that "providing psychological or educational assistance or job training to o?enders" makes "them less likely to engage in future criminality
_____ is based on the notion that people, whatever their age or their crime can change. The key to change is treatment individual and group counseling, drug and alcohol treatment, remedial education, and vocational education.
Rehabilitation
Between the 1950s and the 1970s, rehabilitation was the philosophy most frequently promoted by _____
penologists
penologists
people who systematically study punishment.
In summarizing the research on rehabilitation, Joseph Rogers and Larry Mays (1987, 519-20) made several key points, ones that are no less relevant after nearly three decades:
No treatment program works with every pos-sible o?ender. ? Some programs may not work with any o?enders.
? Some programs have a high degree of e?cacy; that is, they work with a broad range of o?enders.
? Unfortunately, some o?enders cannot be rehabilitated.
Isolation is a very old correctional philosophy that has served two purposes throughout recorded history such as;
Punishment and the rotten apple
Rotten apple
o?enders were isolated to protect the rest of society from "spoiling.
The contemporary version of isolation is _____
incapacitation
incapacitation
separating o?enders from the community to reduce the opportunity for further crime while they are incarcerated
selective incapacitation
lies the assumption that career criminals can be identi?ed early on, as preteens or teens. Once these o?enders are identi?ed, the full force of the criminal justice system is brought to bear on them.
Policymakers use of_________ to ensure that career criminals are caught, convicted, and sentenced to a signi?cant period of incarceration. The goal of policymakers is to reduce the crime rate substantially by removing persistent o?enders from society for
selective incapacitation
Reintegration
recognizes the fact that a high percentage of the people in prison�probably more than 90 percent�eventually get out (Travis 2000). Once they get out, many of these o?enders have a di?cult time making a transition back into society. They must readjust to their families, to work, and to the label ex-con
Restitution
entails having the o?ender repay the victim or the community in money or services
Restorative justice, or the balanced approach is based on three key elements:
Accountability
Community protection
Competency development
Accountability
requires o?enders to repay or restore victims' losses, much like restitution.
Community protection
weighs both public safety and the least costly, least restrictive correctional alternative.
Competency development
emphasizes remediation for o?enders' social, educational, or other de?ciencies when they enter the correctional system.
contemporary corrections is caught in a _______
model muddle
the United States embarked on an ________. In the last two decades of the twentieth century, the incarceration rate rose from 138 to 461 per capita; between 1980 and 2010, the number of people in state and federal prisons went up over fourfold, from 329,8
imprisonment binge
By the end of the twentieth century, the _______was incarcerating people at the highest rate of any nation, a characterization that held through the ?rst decade of the twenty-?rst century
United States
The incarceration rate increased 50 percent between 1980 and 1985, followed by another _____ percent increase between 1985 and 2010, and the peak rate to date was even higher in 2007!
133
Field of Dreams theory:
if you build a jail or prison, the inmates will come.
It costs between $50,000 (for low-risk inmates) and $100,000 (for high-risk inmates) per bed space to build and an average of between _________per year to house each inmate
$20,000 and $30,000
criminology
the scienti?c study of crime and criminals, is often dated from Cesare Beccaria's (1738-1794) late eighteenth-century attempts to apply what we now call deterrence theory to crime
Beccaria
believed that people are rational beings endowed by their creator with free will and so are responsible for their own actions. Without certain and swift punishment that accords the unwanted act the required amount of severity, some people simply choose crime.
Cesare Lombroso reported a criminological application for Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory. Criminals, according to what became known as the Lombrosian or Italian school of criminology , have few choices to make because their criminal tendencies are i
biological determinism
biological determinism
Criminals are genetic mis?ts or biological throw-backs to earlier, primitive, and more violent beings.
Lombroso's ideas, ?rst published as ______ in 1876, spawned a generation of deterministic anthropologists, psychologists, and economists.
The Criminal Man
As _______, these social scientists believed that forces beyond the individual's control were the source of criminal behavior.
determinists
positivists
they looked for answers in measurable aspects of the human condition.
Psychological determinists
looked for forces in the human mind that could explain criminal conduct.
Economic determinists, and later social determinists_________
believed that the distribution of wealth and the treatment of certain segments of society based on economic strati?cation created conditions ripe for criminality
social engineering
which in e?ect would rescue those placed by accident of birth in poor economic conditions.
Spencer
a social Darwinist, believed that government should not attempt to alter the lives of society's less fortunate in a substantial way. "The quality of society," he wrote, "is physically lowered by the arti?cial preservation of its feeblest members [and] the quality of a society is lowered morally and intellectually by the arti?cial preservation of those who are least able to take care of themselves
Neopositivists
would argue that school performance mediates between IQ scores and crime-proneness
In one of the more interesting arguments about the role of bio-chemical imbalances, Lee Ellis (1991) asserts that criminals' blood exhibits low levels of a naturally occurring enzyme, _______
monoamine oxidase
______ helps regulate several key neurotransmitters, including those in the brain.
MAO
MAO is generally lower in three groups:
males, youths and young adults (in their teens and twenties),
psychological determinists
believe that defects of the mind cause all misbehavior, including crime.
Freudian psychoanalysts link human misbehavior to developmental issues originating with the following parts of the human ______
psyche
the id
the unconscious source of primitive and hedonistic urges
the ego
that part of the mind in?uenced by parental training and the like
the superego
that part of the mind that is concerned with moral values
According to _______ (1925), the superego takes its form and content from children's e?orts to emulate their parents or parental ?gures. Sometimes, the superego fails to develop properly, leaving only the ego to control the id's impulses.
August Aichhorn
Excessive control during a child's formative years can result in a super-ego that is too ______. Thinking bad and doing bad are often confused.
rigid and in?exible
The individual with an excessively controlling superego seeks_______ as a way of dealing with unconscious guilt. The person with a weak superego is unable to control aggressive, hostile, or antisocial urges.
punishment
prescribed treatment of the superego?
dream analysis and free association
behavior modi?cation
It begins with the premise that all behavior is the result of learned responses to various stimuli
Behavior is shaped by the presence or absence of various ______ , which stimulate behavior, and punishers , which retard or extinguish behavior.
reinforcers
What is the practical role of behavior modi?ca-tion in corrections?
retail therapy
toke economy
retail therapy
holds the o?ender accountable for his or her actions. In practice, RT is paternalistic and even authoritarian, which may explain its popularity with correctional workers. The therapist's moral standards must become the client's moral standards (Bersani 1989). The therapist develops a close relationship with the client and uses praise and concern as reinforcers, and the withdrawal of both as punishers. Through a lengthy interactive process, the client comes to see the error of his or her ways and, to gain favor with the therapist, ultimately behaves di?erently.
example of token economy rewards for convicted criminals
early parole, temporary work or educational release into the community, and institutional privileges (including access to exercise or entertainment and better working conditions).
examples of token economy rewards for bad behavior
yields punishments�for example, the loss of rewards, temporary isolation, or lower-paying and less-rewarding work.
psychology also provides insights into one of the most intriguing puzzles observed by correctional workers. Some "perfect" prison inmates� those who rarely complain about prison life or cause trouble for prison authorities�make ____ candidates for release
poor
arousal theory
That theory recognizes that some criminals have no conscience.
Psychopaths (or sociopaths )
commit crimes with no thought of conventional morality or of the consequences of their actions.
According to Ellis (1990), because of a genetic defect, the brain functioning of psychopathic criminals quickly becomes_______ to incoming stimuli.
habituated
In many _______, crime is viewed as a consequence of social forces.
sociological theories
Chicago school of sociology to the study of crime.
social ecologists at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s believed it was the geographic area, not the people who inhabited it, that held the answer to understanding crime. They said crime emerged in certain communities because of disturbed, distressed, or incomplete social connections
Social disorganization
The theory directly links crime rates to neighborhood ecological characteristics; a core principle of social disorganization theory is that place matters. In other words, a person's residential location is a substantial factor shaping the likelihood that that person will become involved in illegal activities
cultural transmission thesis (1):
A key explanatory element of the Chicago school of sociology's social disorganization theory. It states that there are no criminal groups, only criminal areas of neighborhoods that pass the criminality from one generation to the next as part of the area's culture.
differential association theory (1):
Sutherland's explanation for why people commit crimes: that criminals learn motives, ideas, and rationalizations from others, and that those de?nitions vary by duration, frequency, intensity, and priority.
According to Sutherland, criminal values and behaviors are learned through social interactions. He called those values and behaviors ______ , and he suggested that those who become criminals are exposed to more de?nitions
de?nitions
Sutherland believed that the sources of procriminal (and prosocial) de?nitions vary along four dimensions;
priority
frequency
duration
intensity
operant conditioning :
reward mechanisms encourage some de?nitions, whereas punishers extinguish others�concepts borrowed wholesale from behaviorism.
In later re?nements of his social learning theory , Akers articulated two central ideas. First, learning occurs through two mechanisms: imitation and differential reinforcement ,
...
imitation
which involves modeling behavior after that observed in others
differential reinforcement
the operant conditioning principle that people retain and repeat rewarded behavior and extinguish behavior that is punished.
discriminative stimuli (1):
According to Akers, positive or neutralizing de?nitions that motivate people to violate the law.
According to Akers, criminals learn motivating de?nitions�what he called ______ �that either cast criminal behavior in a positive light or help neutralize the "undesirableness" of the behavior
discriminative stimuli
therapeutic communities .
residential programs in which o?enders work together to change the attitudes and behaviors of all group members. In this case, reinforcers and punishers come from the o?enders' peers, who are also engaged in the therapeutic process
subcultural hypothesis :
that crime largely emerges from delinquent or deviant subcultures. For example, delinquent youths may band together in gangs that reject both society and its values, reducing the impact of society's rejection of them
Cultural transmission or social learning theorists, particularly Sutherland and Akers, base their explanations of crime and deviance on a single assumption:
people learn to be deviant just as they learn to be conventional.
Proponents of ______ say that society provides the "social glue" that binds people together.
social control theory
social control theory (1):
A theory of crime that emphasizes the social mechanisms, strategies, and practices that ultimately lead to conformity, or at least obedience, to society's rules.
Social control theory is rooted in the work of ______ (1897), a French sociologist who believed that many of society's ills, including crime, derive from times when the social fabric of society is weakened by war, economic changes, or other crises.
�mile Durkheim
anomie (1):
Durkheim's term to describe the rejection of laws and other norms by a society that has undergone critical social or economic change. Merton uses the term to describe the gulf between the culture's goals and the individual's capacity to achieve them.
Social control theory is rooted in the work of �mile Durkheim (1897), a French sociologist who believed that many of society's ills, including crime, derive from times when the social fabric of society is weakened by war, economic changes, or other crises
anomie
Robert K. Merton (1957),
believed that anomie is the result of the rift between culturally de?ned success (status and ?nancial security, and the luxuries they provide) and limitations on the individual's ability to achieve that success (education, thrift, and hard work, for example).
Merton developed several categories of adaptation to describe the individual's response to anomie. Conformists try legitimate means, including hard work and discipline, to achieve culturally valued goals. When they meet barriers, they stand face-to-face w
anomic trap
anomic trap : .
they can accept their fate, work hard, and achieve little; or they can turn to another adaptation
Innovators
use illegitimate means to achieve success.
Hirschi believed that the ______ is the sum of the forces in a person's social and physical environment that connect that person to society and its moral constituents.
social bond
Hirschi identi?ed four types of ties between individuals and social institutions:
Attachment
Commitment
Involvement
belief
Attachment
is the a?ection for and sensitivity to members of social groups. Without attachments, the individual is free to deviate.
Commitment
refers to the individual's stake in conformity�how devoted he or she is to conventionality.
Involvement
is the extent to which the person engages in conventional activities.
Belief
explores the idea that the correctness of norms is variable, that norms (and laws) may not hold the same signi?cance for all people in a society. The greater the belief in the society's norms, the lower the chance of delinquency.
As for correctional practice, convicted criminals may be among the most "____" individuals in society.
debonded
The United States has ____ correctional systems, a system in each state and a national system.
51
Marxists
believe that the criminal justice system serves the interests of the wealthy (the capitalists), those who own the means of production and feed off the labor of the workers (the proletariat).
radical nonintervention
society and its agents of social control should overlook minor delinquent acts (for example, criminal trespass, petty vandalism, and shoplifting where restitution is made) to avoid labeling youngsters and possibly setting them on the path toward more serious criminality when they are older.
Traditional programs of probation and parole are examples of _______e?orts.
community-based corrections
___________are among the fastest-growing programs in contemporary corrections.
Intermediate-sanction programs
Split sentences and intermittent con?nement are two forms of ______: both require individuals convicted of crimes to serve brief periods of con?nement in a local, state, or federal facility, followed by a period of community supervision.
intermediate sanctions
Prisons in the United States typically fall into one of three security classi?cations:
minimum, medium and maximum
No universal agreement exists about what the word _______ means, and what exactly we are attempting to correct.
corrections
_________can help us understand the nature of human behavior and the appropriate responses to criminality.
Criminological theories
Criminological theories can help us understand the nature of human behavior and the appropriate responses to criminality. Most of these theories can be characterized as _________.
biological, psychological, or sociological. However, theories dealing with power and economics also have become prominent
Although the gross number of people under supervi-sion is instructive, especially if we are looking at growth or trends, the ______ �the rate per 100,000 people within a given racial or ethnic group�is more useful in making comparisons within groups or be
per capita rate
lex talionis
translates from the Latin to mean the law of talion, the latter meaning exchange.
________ is granted by a parole board, after a review of an inmate's criminal and institu-ional history and other relevant facts.
Discretionary parole
Merton identi?ed two other adaptations.
Retreatists
rebels
Retreatists
those who abandon both legitimate means to success and cultural goals of success for their own, usually more hedonistic, means and goals, could also be a source of trouble for the criminal justice system.
rebels
who actively challenge all rules, including means and goals, are potentially thorns in the side of authority and, hence, problems for the justice system.
From a ________, criminal cronies are potential sources of procriminal de?nitions.
social learning perspective
From a ________, ties to criminal cronies could weaken the bond to conventional society.
social bonding perspective